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Columbia  ^inibersiitp 

mtf)eCitpo(^eto|9orb 


LIBRARY 


V 


This  book  is  due  two  weeks  from  the  last  date  stamped 
below,  and  if  not  returned  at  or  before  that  time  a  fine  of 

fiv.    -  rts  a  dav  will  be  incurred. 


JO  19IC 


;  1 


THE  STORY  OF  RUSSIA 


: 


BY 


R.   VAN    BERGEN,    M.A. 

AUTHOR  OF  "  THE  STORY  OF  JAPAN,"  "  THE  STORY  OF  CHINA,"  ETC. 


NEW  YORK  •:•  CINCINNATI  :•  CHICAGO 
AMERICAN   BOOK  COMPANY 


Copyright,    1905, 
By  AMERICAN  BOOK  COMPANY 


Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London 


Story  of  Russia 


W.  P.   I 


^^1 


.X71. 


JTo 


HENRY  MATHER  EOWMAN 


AMICUS  CKRTUS  RE  INCERTA  CERNITUR. 


\ 


PRE  FAC  E 


Recent  events  have   drawn  the   attention  upon  Russia,  a 
country  of  which  but  httle  is  known  here,  because  the  in- 
tercourse between  it  and  the  United  States  has  been  hmited. 
In   my  frequent   journeys  to  the  Far  East,  I  found   it  often 
difhcult   to  comprehend  events  because,  while   I  could  not 
help  perceiving  that  the  impulse  leading  to  them  came  from 
Russia,  it  was  impossible  to  discover  what  prompted  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  czar.      I  felt  the  necessity  to  study  the  history 
of  Russia,  and  found  it  so  fascinating,  that  I  resolved  to 
place  it  in  a  condensed    form  before   the  students    in  our 
schools.     They  must  be  the  judges  of  how  I  have  succeeded. 


R.  Van  Bergen. 


1     I 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 


T. 
II. 
III. 
IV. 
V. 
VI. 
VII. 
VIII. 
IX. 
X. 
XL 
XII. 
XIII. 
XIV. 
XV. 
XVI. 

XVII. 


PAGE 

The  Realm  of  the  Czar ^3 

Karly  Ri<:cords  ok  Russia 23 

The  Norsemen  (or  Varixgians)  in  Russia 29 

Saint  Vladimir  and  Iaroslore  the  Great 41 

A  Russian  Republic 49 

Troublous  Times 57 

The  Yellow  Peru ^3 

Ru.ssiA  Under  the  Mongol  Yoke 71 

Lithuania  and  Moscow 79 

Decline  of  the  Tartar  Power.  Dmitri  Donskoi    87 

Ivan  III,  the  Great 97 

Russia  becomes  an  Autocracy  106 

Ivan  IV,  the  Terrible i^i 

Russia  Under  Ivan  the  Terrible 122 

Feodor,  the  Last  of  Rurik's  Descendants 129 

Michael  Feodorovitch  (Son  of  Theodore),  the 

First  Romanof '37 

Karly  Years   of    Peter  the   Great    (Peter 

Alexievitch) M5 

11 


12 

CHAPTER  PAGB 

XVIII.  Peter  the  Great  and  His  Reign 153 

XIX.  Peter  the  Great  and  His  Time 162 

XX.  The  Successors  of  Peter  the  Great 173 

XXI.  Russia  Under  Catherine  II  (the  Great) 183 

XXII.  Russia  During  the  Wars  of  Napoleon 194 

XXIII.  An  Eventful  Period 208 

XXIV.  Alexander  II,  the  Liberator  219 

XXV.  Great    Events    During  Alexander's    Reign. 

Nihilism 229 

XXVI.  Alexander  III,  the  Peasants'  Friend 241 

XXVII.  Russia  Under  the  Present  Czar,  Nicholas  II..  251 
XXVIII.  TheOrigin  AND  Growth  OF  The  Asiatic  Empire  259 

XXIX.  Russian  Methods.    The  War  with  Japan 267 

XXX.  Russia  Loses  her  Prestige 277 


THE  STORY  OF  RUSSIA 


I_THE  REALM    OV  THE  CZAR 

WHEN  we  think  of  our  country,  we  feel  proud  of  it 
for  other  and  better  reasons  than  its  great  size. 
We  know  how  its  extent  compares  with  that  of  other 
nations ;  we  know  that  the  United  States  covers  an  area 
ahiiost  ecpial  to  that  of  luirope,  and,  more  favored  than 
that  (irand  Division,  is  situated  on  the  two  great  highways 
of  commerce,  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans.  Europe  is 
as  far  from  the  latter,  as  Asia  is  from  the  former;  and 
these  highways,  powerful  means  toward  creating  pros- 
perity, remain  at  the  same  time  barriers  whereby  nations 
that  find  irreater  delight  in  the  arts  of  war  than  in  those 
of  peace,   are   restrained    from   disturbing  our   national 

progress. 

At  the  beginning  of  this  twentieth  century  the  nations 
upon  which  depends  the  world's  peace  or  war,  hai)piness 
or  misfortune,  are  the  Tnited  States,  (jreat  Britain, 
Tiermany,  hVance,  Austria-Hungary,  Italy,  Russia,  Japan, 
and  in  the  near  future  China.  Here  we  see  that  Europe, 
although  little  larger  in  area  than  the  I'nited  States,  is 
represented  bv  seven  nations,  Asia  by  two,  and  the 
Western    Hemisphere   by   one   which   by    its   institutions 

13 


14 


stands  for  peace  and  progress,  for  law  and  order.  Hence 
we,  its  citizens,  are  known  all  over  the  world  as 
Americans. 

If  we  compare  the  area  occupied  by  the  several  Euro- 
pean powers  with  that  covered  by  the  main  body  of  our 
republic,  that  is,  not  including  Alaska  and  other  outlying 
territories,  we  find  that  Austria-Hungary  has  four 
thousand  scpiare  miles  less  than  Texas,  while  Germany 
lacks  forty  thousand  square  miles  in  c(Mnparison  with  the 
Lone  Star  State.  France  is  four  thousand  square  miles 
less  than  dermany,  and  Italy  is  only  a  thousand  square 
miles  greater  than  Nevada.  The  I'ritish  Kingdom  in 
Europe  is  about  twice  the  area  of  Illinois.  Among  the 
great  nations  of  the  world,  aside  from  outlying  posses- 
sions beyond  the  (irand  Division,  our  country  stands 
third,  and  should  occupy  the  second  place,  because  China, 
the  next  larger,  owes  its  greater  area  to  territories  over 
which  she  has  little  or  no  control,  and  whirh  she  seems 
destined  to  lose. 

The  largest  country  is  Russia,  covering  as  it  does  one- 
sixth  of  all  the  land  on  the  earth.  This  empire,  although 
inhabited  by  people  differing  in  race,  religion,  and  cus- 
toms, is  one  compact  whole.  It  embraces  in  Europe 
2,113,000  square  miles,  or  more  than  all  other  Euro- 
pean nations  combined ;  its  area  in  Asia  is  6,672,000 
square  miles,  making  a  total  of  8,785,000  scjuare  miles,  or 
2.8  times  as  many  as  the  main  body  of  cnir  country.  All 
the  people  living  in  this  immense  em])ire,  whatever  their 
race,  religion,  or  language,  obey  the  will  of  one  man. 
We,  who  dwell  in  our  beloved  country,  yield  obedience 
onlv  to  the  Law  ;  but  the  laws  are  made  by  ourselves,  and 


15 


thev  allow  us  to  do  as  we  please,  so  long  as  we  do  not 
interfere  with  others  who  have  the  same  rights ;  and  those 
laws  are  ever  ready  to  i)rotect  us.  In  Russia  laws  arc 
made  or  unmade  at  the  will  of  one  i)erson  who  is  himself 
above  the  laws.  ICvery  man,  woman,  or  child,  born  and 
living  in  that  country,  is  at  his  mercy.  Mere  suspicion  is 
sufficient  to  drag  a  man  from  his  family  and  home,  per- 
haps to  disappear  without  leaving  a  trace.  Such  a 
government  is  called  an  autocracy,  and  the  man  who  may 
thus  dispose  of  people's  life  and  property,  is  known  as 
an  Autocrat.  Hence  the  title  of  the  Emperor  of  Russia 
is :  Autocrat  of  All  the  Russias. 

Why    "All    the    Russias"?      Look    at    the    map    of 
Eurasia,  the  continent  embracing  the  two  Grand  Divi- 
sions Europe  and  Asia.     You  will  see  that  the  Russian 
Empire  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Arctic  Ocean; 
on  the  east  by  the  Bering  Strait,  the   Bering  Sea,  the 
Sea  of  Okhotsk,  and  the  Japan   Sea;  on  the  south  by 
China,     Pamir,    Afghanistan,     Persia,    Asiatic    Turkey, 
and    the    lUack    Sea;    and   on    the   west   by    Roumania, 
Austria-Hungary,  the  German  Empire,  the  Baltic  Sea. 
Sweden,    and    Norway.      This    immense    empire    is    the 
growth  of  many   centuries,  and  even  in  Europe  it  has 
not  yet  been   welded   into  one   whole.      When   we   read 
Russian  books,  we  learn  about  Great  and  Little  Russia, 
White  and   Red   Russia,  which  shows  that  divisions  of 
bygone  years  are  still   observed  by   the  people.     Much 
has  been  done  towards  effacing  those  boundary  lines; 
but  the  fact  that  the  czar,  autocrat  though  he  is,  recog- 
nizes and  admits  the  division  in  his  title,  shows  that  even 
he  is,  to  some  extent,  subject  to  public  opinion. 


16 


Russia    in    Europe,    however,    with    the    exception    of 
Poland  and  Finland,  is  a  country  with  one  religion  and 
one  language  ;  that  is,  the  czar  and  his  government  recog- 
nize and  admit  no  other.     That  is  the  cause  of  the  ])erse- 
cution  of  the  Jews,   four  fifths   of   whoiu   dwell    in   the 
southwest  of  Russia  in  an  area  covering  35^),^)Hi   square 
miles,  which  is  sometimes  mentioned  as  the  Jewish  terri- 
tory.    Everv  succeeding  czar  has  tried  to  make  all  his 
subjects  think  and  act  in  the  manner  prescribed  by  him. 
The  process  is  known  as  '*  Russianizing,"  and  goes  on 
incessantly  in  its  different  stages.     Immediately  after  the 
conquest  of  a  country,  its  people  are  assured  that  their 
religion,   institutions,  and   language,   shall   be   respected: 
the  only  difference  is  that  the  native  officials  are  displaced 
by  Russians.     This  continues  until  Russian  rule  is  firmly 
established,   and   no   one   dreams   of   resisting   the  czar. 
Then  the  Russian  language  displaces  the  native  tongue, 
and  if   disturbances  occur,   the   military   is   cal1<^d    in   to 
inflict    a   terrible   punishment.      The    loss    of    the    native 
language  carries  with  it  that  of  old  institutions,  and  when 
the  people  have  submitted  to  their  fate,  it  is  the  turn  of 
their   religion.     The  Russian  is  in   no  hurry  ;  he  has  a 
conviction    that    time   has    no   changes    in    store    for    his 
empire,  hence  he  bides  his  time,  and  is  likely  to  succeed 
in   his    purpose.      This    prcxress    is    now    carried    on    in 
Central  Asia  where  Russian  power  has  found  its  greatest 
expansion  in  modern  times.     It  is  but  fair  to  admit  that 
Russian    absorption    there    has    been    highly    beneficial 
because  robber  tribes  were  reduced  to  law  and  order. 

Before  telling  the  Story  of  Russia,  that  is,  of  how  the 
huge  empire  was  formed  and  grew  to  its  present  size, 


i8 


it  is  necessary  to  become  better  acquainted  with  the 
aspect  and  nature  of  the  country.  Looking  at  the  map 
of  the  Eurasian  continent,  that  is.  the  continent  embrac- 
in^:^  Europe  and  Asia,  we  cannot  fail  to  notice  that  Russia 
is  a  country  of  the  plains.  Its  southern  boundary  seems 
to  follow  the  mountain  barriers  which  divide  Asia  into 
two  parts.  Does  it  not  seem  as  if  long  billows  of  earth 
roll  down  toward  the  Arctic  Ocean,  where  they  rest 
benumbed  by  the  eternal  cold?  These  mountains  branch 
off  toward  the  south,  east  or  west,  but  scorn  to  throw 
so  much  as  a  spur  northward.  It  is  true  that  a  solitary 
chain,  the  Urals,  runs  north  and  south,  but  it  stands  by 
itself,  and  is  nothinj^:  more  than  what  the  word  Ural 
sif^^nifies,  a  belt  or  ij^irdlc  separatinj^  the  European  from 
his  Asiatic  brother.  These  mountains  do  not  form  the 
backbone  of  a  couiUry.  nor  do  they  serve  as  a  watershed, 
like  our  Rocky  Mountains  or  the  .Andes  of  South  .\merica. 
Some  of  their  peaks  rise  to  a  hci.c^ht  of  6,000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  but  the  chain,  1531  miles  long,  seems 
destined  only  to  keep  the  two  races  ajiart. 

Beyond  the  Ural  mountains,  the  plain  resumes  its 
sway.  This  extensive  flat  could  not  fail  to  exert  a 
noticeable  inlluence  upon  the  country  and  its  inhabitants. 
The  dense  forests  in  the  north,  while  acting  as  a  screen, 
do  not  aft'ord  protection  against  the  icy  polar  winds  which 
sweep  with  scarcely  diminished  force  over  the  broad 
expanse,  so  that  the  northern  shores  of  the  Hlack  and 
Caspian  Seas  in  January  have  about  the  same  temperature 
as  Stockholm,  the  capital  of  Sweden.  The  mountains  of 
Western  Europe  shut  off  the  aerial  current  of  the  Gulf 
Stream  which  tempers  the  summer  heat  as  well  as  the 


# 


19 

winter  cold.  Russia's  climate,  therefore,  is  one  of 
extremes.  In  summer  the  heat  is  very  oppressive,  owing 
to  the  absence  of  the  sea  breeze  which  elsewhere  affords 
so  much  relief;  and  when  a  wind  d(H's  blow,  it  only  adds 
to  the  discomfort,  because  it  has  lost  its  moisture.  That 
is  the  reason  why  Russia  suffers  so  often  from  drought. 
This  is  especially  the  case  in  Uie  south  where  no  forests 
are  found  to  attract  rain. 

Nature  has  provided  a  substitute  in  the  splendid  water- 
ways.    In  about  the  center  of  Euroi)ean  Russia,  rises  the 
\aldai  plateau  to  a  height  of   i.ioo  feet  above  the  sea 
level.     This   is   Russia's   great   watershed.      Near   it,   in 
Lake  X'olgo,  rises  the  largest  river  of  Europe,  "  Mother 
X'olga,"   as   the   Russian   ballad   singers   love   to  call   it. 
Its  entire  length  is  2.336  miles,  or  nearly  the  length  of 
the  Missouri;   it   has  a  basin  of   590,000  square  miles. 
Owing  to  the  slight  slope  of  the  land,  the  great  river 
flows  placidly   in   its  bed,   which   is   fortunate  since   its 
waters  are  swollen  by  several  large  rivers,  so  that  there 
are  points  where  it  is  seventeen  miles  wide.     The  Kama, 
one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  X'olga,  is  1,266  miles  long; 
the  Oka.  another  confluent,  has  a  length  of  633  miles. 
At  Kazan,  the  \'olga  is  4-953  ^^'^t  wide,  at  Jaroslaf  2,106 
feet,   and   at   Samara,   2446   feet.      It   empties   into   the 
Caspian  Sea,  with  a  delta  of  more  than  seventy  branches. 
The    fish   caught    in    this    river   often   grow    to    gigantic 
proportions;   its   sturgeons,   lampreys,    and   salmon,   are 
highly  prized.     Since  time   immemorial,  the  Volga  has 
been  a  great  highway  of  trade.     Kostroma,  Xishni  Nov- 
gorod, Kazan,  Simbirsk,  Saratof,  and  Astrakhan,  are  die 
most  populous  cities  on  its  banks. 


20 


Other  large  rivers  rise  on  the  Valdai  plateau.  The 
Dnieper  runs  south,  passing  by  Kief,  and  empties  in  the 
Black  Sea,  near  Odessa.  The  Dwina  runs  northward, 
seeking  the  icy  Arctic,  which  it  enters  by  way  of  the 
White  Sea  near  Archangel.  The  Diina  takes  a  westerly 
course  towards  the  Gulf  of  Riga  where  it  empties  near  the 
city  of  that  name.  Of  greater  importance  are  the  small 
streams  which  feed  Lakes  Ladoga  and  Onega,  because 
they  connect  Central  Russia  with  the  Baltic  Sea  by 
means  of  the  Neva. 

European  Russia  is  usually  divided  into  four  zones 
or  belts,  from  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the  nature 
of  its  productions  ;  their  general  direction  is  from  south- 
west to  northeast.  In  the  north,  as  a  screen  against 
the  Arctic  blast,  is  the  policssa  or  forest  region,  densely 
covered  with  lindens,  birches,  larches,  and  sycamores, 
with  oaks  on  the  southern  fringe.  These  forests  are 
invaluable  to  Russia  where,  in  the  absence  of  mountains, 
stone  is  scarce.  The  houses  are  built  of  wood,  and 
fires  are  of  common  occurrence.  I>oth  lumber  and  fuel 
are  supplied  by  these  forests  which  originally  extended 
to  Novgorod,  Moscow,  and  Jaroslaf.  The  increase  in 
population  together  with  the  growing  demand  for 
lumber,  have  caused  extensive  clearings ;  but  the  area 
covered  by  the  forests  is  so  large,  that  the  supply  is 
well-nigh  inexhaustible. 

South  of  this  zone  are  the  black  earth  lands,  extend- 
ing down  to  the  Caucasus  and  across  the  Urals,  and 
covering  in  Europe  an  area  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
million  acres, — equal  to  that  of  Texas.  This  zone 
derives  its  name  from  an  apparently  inexhaustible  bed 


I 


IT_EARLY  RECORDS  OF  RUSSIA 

AT  an  early  period  in  the  history  of  Greece,  we  hear  of 
colonies  established  on  the  northern  shore  of  the 
Pontus  Euxinus  or  Hospitable  Sea,  as  they  named  the 
Black  Sea  We  niav  even  now  recognize  some  of  the 
names  of  those  colonies,  snch  as  (^dessos.  at  the  month 
of  the  Bnp,  Tvras.  at  that  of  the  Dniester,  and  Pityas 
where  Colchis,  the  object  of  the  search  of  Jason  and  his 
fellow  Argonauts,  is  supposed  to  have  been.  In  the 
fourth  centurv  before  our  era,  some  of  these  colomes 
unite<l  under  a  hereditary  arclwn  or  governor,  probably 
for  the  purpose  of  securing  better  protection  aganist  the 
barbarians  who  dwelt  further  inland. 

The  Creeks  mention  these  barbarians  as  the  Scythians, 
an.l  divided  them  into  three  classes.  The  agricultural 
Scythians  .Iwelt  in  the  black  earth  belt,  near  the  Dnieper  ; 
the  noma.l  Scvtbians  lived  at  some  distance  to  the  east 
of  them,  an.l  the  royal  Scythians  occupied  the  land  around 

the  Sea  of  Azof. 

Learned  men  of  Russia  have  made  many  excavations 
on  the  spots  where  the  Greek  settlements  once  stood 
,l„ring    the    past    century.      They    have    been    rewarded 
by  finding  many  works  of  art,  illustrating  the  mode  of 

23 


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Otiicr  lar.i;c  rivers  rise  on  the  X'aldai  plateau.  The 
Dniejjer  inns  sontli,  passini^^  hy  Kief,  ainl  emptier  in  ilic 
I'laek  Sea.  neai"  (  )(l.wsa.  '1  lu-  Mwin.i  inns  n(  Mlliw  ai<l. 
seeking  llie  icy  Arelie,  wliieli  it  enters  \)v  wav  of  tlie 
White  Sea  near  .\relian,i;el.  Tlie  I  )rnia  talse>  a  westerlv 
conrse  towards  the  (  inlf  of  Ki^a  wheie  it  empties  near  the 
city  of  that  name.  (  )f  i;ri-;iter  imp<»rtanee  are  the  small 
streams  which  feed  Lakes  I.adoi^a  and  (  )nei^a.  heeanse 
they  comiect  C'entral  Knssia  with  the  I'ailic  Sea  hy 
means  of  the    Xeva. 

luiropean  ivnssia  is  nsnally  divided  into  fonr  zones 
or  helts,  from  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the  natnre 
of  its  |)io(lnctions  :  their  general  direction  i^  from  sonth- 
west  to  northeast.  In  the  north,  as  a  screen  ai;ainsl 
the  Arctic  hlast.  is  the  ["olicssa  or  forest  rej^don.  denselv 
covered  with  lindens,  hirches,  larches,  and  svcamores, 
with  oaks  on  the  sonthern  fringe.  'llu-se  forests  are 
invaluahle  to  Rnssia  where,  in  the  ahsence  of  momitains. 
stone  is  scaice.  The  honses  are  hnilt  (tf  wo'xl.  and 
fires  are  of  connnon  occnricncr.  I'oth  Inmher  and  fnel 
arc  sni)plied  hy  these  forests  which  orii^inallv  extended 
to  NovL;(>rod.  Moscow,  and  jaroslaf.  'idle  increase  in 
popnlatioii  lo^einei  wiili  the  q^rowini;'  demand  for 
Inmher.  have  cansed  extensive  clearint;^ ;  hnl  the  area 
covered  hy  the  forests  is  so  lari^c,  that  the  supplv  is 
well-nii;h  inexhanstihle. 

Sonth  of  this  zoiu-  are  the  black  earth  lands,  extend- 
itii^f  down  to  the  Cancasns  and  across  the  I'rals.  and 
covering  in  lun-ope  an  area  of  one  hnndred  and  fifty 
million  acres. — cipial  to  that  of  Texas.  This  zone 
derives   its   name   from   an   apparenilv   inexhanstihle  bed 


«*»■ » 


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•a*^vj'i#  ■  ji 


2  1 

of  black  mold,  so  rich  that  no  manure  is  recinired  to 
produce  abnn«lant  crops.  I'ntil  late  in  the  last  century, 
and  before  the  rniled  Stales  be.^an  to  export  its  surplus 
harvests,  this  region  was  c<»nsidered  the  granary  of 
Europe.  It  was  kn(.wn  in  ver\'  ol<l  times  since  we  read 
of  it  in  the  Heroic  .\.m'  (»f  Ancient  (ireece.  when  Jason 
sailed  in  the  Ar^o  to  brim;-  home  the  ( ioldeii   Meece. 

Almost  e(|ual  in  extent  is  the  zone  of  arable  stei)pes, 
or  prairies.  onc«-  the  home  of  the  (  "ossack.  the  nomad 
who  led  here  the  life  of  a  shepherd  kinij:.  moviiii;  about 
as  the  condition  of  pasture  and  llock  reipiired.  M(^st  of 
this  land  is  now  nn«ler  cultivation,  and  with  careful 
farming-  prodtucs  i^ood  crops.  1  Iksc  arable  steppes 
cover    an    area    e(|nal    to    that    of     Iowa,     Kansas,    and 

Nebraska. 

The  fourth  an<l  last  zone  is  that  of  the  barren  stei)i)es. 
There  is  ample  evidence  that  at  some  remote  time  these 
plains  were  covered  with  salt  water.  Ihe  Casijian  Sea 
has  a  level  ei.ubtv  feet  below  that  of  the  I'.lack  Sea,  and  it 
is  therefore  probable  that  lure  was  a  lari^U'  inland  sea  of 
which  the  Caspian  and  Aral  Seas  are  the  remains.  These 
stepi)es  are  unlit  for  farming;.  Mere  dwell  the  Kalmucks 
and  Kir;;hi/es.  <lescen<lants  of  thi'  dartars  whose  yoke 
once  pressed  heavily   ni)un  Russia. 


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TI— I'AKLV   Rl'.CoUnS  Ol-    RTSSIA 

A  T  an  early  |)i'iiM(l  in  tin-  lii^loi  \  <>f  (  Iifcrc.  wc  hear  of 
•^  ^  colonics  f^lahlishcd  on  llir  norlhcrn  shore  of  the 
Pontiis  I'.nximis  or  I  lospitahlc  Sea.  as  ihcy  named  the 
]*)lack  Sea.  \\ C  nia\-  e\(n  imw  re<'»c^rin/,.  sdine  of  (he 
names  of  those  e«>l<»nies.  sneh  as  (  )(le^sos.  al  th<*  mouth 
of  the  r>u.[^.  ryras.  at  that  of  the  I  )niester,  and  Tityas 
where  Colchis,  the  ohjeet  nf  the  search  of  Jason  and  his 
fellow  Ar^M)nanls.  is  snpiMi^ccl  to  have  heen.  In  the 
fourth  centur\-  hefore  our  era.  some  of  these  colonies 
united  innler  a  liereditarv  iwchon  or  i^overnor.  i)rohal)ly 
for  the  ])nri)ose  of  secnriniL;  hettt-r  protection  a.L^ainst  the 
harharians  who  dwelt    further  inlaufl. 

The  ( Ireeks  mentinn  the^e  harharians  as  the  Scsthians, 
and  divided  ihcm  into  three  classes.  The  aL;ricultural 
ScNthians  dwelt  in  the  hlack  earth  helt .  near  the  l)nie])er; 
the  nomad  Sc\thians  lixi-d  at  some  distance  to  the  east 
of  them,  and  the  royal  Scythians  occui)ied  the  land  around 
the  Sea  t)f   A/of. 

I-earned  men  of  Russia  have  made  many  excavaliojis 
on  the  spots  where  the  Creek  settlements  once  stood, 
(hirini:^  tlie  i)a^t  century.  'They  have  heen  rewarded 
l)y   lindini;  manv    \\<>rks  <>f  art.   illu^tralini;  the   mode  of 


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ij^.. 


24 


living  of  the  Scythians.  They  have  been  placed,  and 
may  be  seen  in  the  Hermitage  museum  of  St.  Petersburg. 
Among  these  relics  of  the  past  are  two  beautifully 
engraved  vases,  one  of  gold,  the  other  of  silver.  The 
Scythians  on  the  silver  vase  wear  long  hair  and  beards, 
and  are  dressed  in  gowns  or  tunics,  and  bear  a  close 
resemblance  to  the  Russians  of  our  time.  These  vases 
and  other  ancient  objects  confirm  what  is  said  about  these 
people  by  Herodotus,  a  (ireek  historian  who  lived  in  the 
fourth  century  before  Christ. 

We  learn  from  him  that  the  Scythians  worshiped  a 
sword  stuck  into  the  ground,  representing  the  god  of 
war,  and  that  they  made  human  sacrifices.  They  drank 
the  blood  of  the  first  enemy  killed  in  battle,  scalped  their 
prisoners,  and  used  their  skulls  as  drinking  cups.  In  the 
course  of  lime  the  (ireek  civilization  exerted  its  influence, 
and  penetrated  to  tribes  dwelling  much  further  in  the 
north,  as  is  shown  by  the  antiquities  found  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Ekaterinoslaf. 

The  orbis  icrrarum  or  world  so  far  as  it  was  known 
to  the  Greeks,  was  centered  about  the  Mediterranean  ; 
hence  the  name  of  that  sea,  meaning  Middle  of  the  Land 
or  Middle  of  the  Earth.  I'eyond  that  there  was  an 
unknown  region,  supposed  to  be  inhabited  by  people  of 
whom  many  wonderful  stories  were  told.  Thus  they 
believed  in  the  existence  of  the  Arimaspians,  a  race  of  one- 
eyed  people ;  there  are  legends,  too,  of  the  Agri])pei  who 
wxre  described  as  bald  and  snub-nosed.  The  Greeks  also 
mention  the  Gryphons,  who,  they  said,  were  guardians 
of  immense  ((uantities  of  gold.  The  most  w^onderful 
people  to  the  Greeks  were  the  Hyperboreans,  or  dwellers 


¥ 


^s 


beyond  the  regions  of  the  north  wind,  who  were  looked 
upon  wnth  awe  and  pity  because  it  was  said  that  they 
hved  in  a  country  w^here  snow  fell  summer  and  winter. 
These  were  some  of  the  races  and  tribes  supposed  to 
inhabit  Russia,  which  goes  far  to  prove  that  the  knowl- 
edge of  that  country,  in  those  times,  w-as  neither  extensive 
nor  verv  accurate. 

The  truth  is  that  we  know  very  little  about  the  early 
inhabitants  of  Russia  :  nor  do  they  concern  us  greatly, 
because  grave  changes  occurred  in  the  fourth  century 
of  our  era.  At  that  time  several  large  and  warlike  tribes 
of  Central  Asia  moved  westward  compelling  other  tribes 
on  their  route  to  join  them  or  to  move  ahead.  Thus 
they  gathered  strength  until  it  looked  as  if  Asia  \vas 
bent  upon  the  conquest  of  Europe.  They  poured  in 
through  the  gap  between  the  l>al  mountains  and  the 
Caspian  Sea,  and  the  civilized  people  of  southeastern 
Europe  were  unable  to  cope  with  the  savage  hordes.  In 
the  vanguard  were  the  Goths,  who  made  an  effort  to 
settle  in  Scythia,  but  they  were  forced  to  move  on  when 
Attila,  who  is  known  as  the  Scourge  of  God,  swooped 
down  upon  them  with  his  Huns.  He  was  followed  by 
a  host  of  Einns,  Bulgarians,  Magyars,  and  Slavs  who, 
how^ever,  left  his  wake,  scattered  and  settled  down. 
Soon  after  the  Slavs  became  known  to  Greek  authors  and 
were  described  by  them.  They  were  divided  into  a 
number  of  tribes,  among  them  the  Russian  Slavs  who 
settled  about  the  sources  of  the  Volga  and  the  Oka, 
and  were  the  founders  of  Novgorod,  Pskof,  and  Izborsk. 

They  must  have  been  a  numerous  people.     We  hear 
of  another  tribe  settling  on  the  banks  of  the  Vistula,  and 


26 


lavinir  the  foundation  of  the  future  kingdom  of  Poland. 
They  settled  on  the  upper  Elbe,  and  in  the  north  of 
Gernianv.  It  is  believed  that  tlie  Slavs  are  ancestors 
of  the  people  in  lioheniia,  lUil.L;aria.  Croatia,  Servia, 
and  Dalniatia,  and  in  Prussia  oi  those  livini^  in  Ponierania 
and  lirandenburi;-. 

All  these  Slavs,  although  widely  dispersed,  practiced 
the  same  heathen  rites,  spoke  the  same  laui^niai^e,  and 
nursed  the  same  traditions,  until  they  fell  under  different 
influences.  They  were,  however,  not  the  sole  occui)ants 
of  northeastern  Europe.  Other  races  had  followed  in 
Attila's  wake,  and  amon^  them  the  h'inns  were  the 
most  numerous  and  most  warlike.  They  settled  in  the 
basin  of  tlie  Dwina  and  the  Kama  and  named  their  new- 
home  liiarmaland,  while  the  Russians  called  it  (ireat 
Permia.  They  also  occupied  what  is  now  known  as 
Finland,  but  which  was  then  known  as  Land  of  the 
Suomi.  The  Finns,  more  than  any  other  tribe,  bore 
evidence  of  their  Asiatic  origin. 

Thus  the  present  European  Russia  was  divided  amon.i]: 
a  host  of  tribes,  belonf^iui^  either  to  the  Slav  or  I'inn 
families,  and  each  kept  to  a  ^reat  extent  the  superstitions 
and  traditions  of  his  race.  Even  in  our  time  the  traces 
of  these  superstitions  are  plainly  descernible  in  many 
parts  of  Russia.  When  Christianity  was  introduced 
amoni^^  diese  people,  the  missionaries  found  many  of  the 
barbaric  rites  so  strongly  implanted  amon.c:  the  people 
that,  instead  of  makinj:^  vain  efforts  to  uproot  them,  they 
preferred  to  admit  them  under  a  Christian  name. 

The  religion  of  the  Slavs  bore  a  great  resemblance  to 
that  of  the  Norsemen  and  of  the  Germanic  races;  that 


27 


is,  they  worshiped  nature  and  its  phenomena.  Dagh  Bog 
was  the  sungod ;  Perun,  the  Thor  of  northern  mythology, 
was  the  god  of  thunder ;  Stri  Bog,  the  god  of  the  winds ; 
\'oloss,  the  protector  of  flocks.  They  had  neither  temples 
nor  regular  priests,  but  worshii)e(l  the  oak  as  the  symbol 
of  Perun,  and  before  it  the  leaders  offered  sacrifices. 
These  ancient  deities  are  preserved  under  the  names  of 
St.  John,  who  displaced  Perun  ;  X'oloss  who  became  St. 
\naise,  etc.  \\1ien  a  chief  died,  the  wife  often  refused 
to  survive  her  husband.  The  men-servants  were  sum- 
moned and  asked  which  of  them  would  be  buried  with 
his  master.  When  one  of  them  came  forward,  he  was 
immediately  strangled.  Then  the  same  question  was 
put  to  the  women  servants,  and  if  one  of  them  consented, 
she  was  feasted  until  the  day  when  the  funeral  pyre 
awaited  the  corpse.  She  was  then  killed  and  her  body 
burned  with  that  of  her  master.  There  were,  however, 
some  tribes  that  buried  their  dead. 

The  father  was  absolute  master  of  his  family,  but  his 
authority  did  not  descend  to  the  eldest  son,  but  to  the 
oldest  of  the  family,  his  brothers,  if  any  were  living, 
according  to  their  age.  The  Slavs  kept  several  wives, 
and  were  given  to  consume  large  quantities  of  a  strong 
drink  called  kvass.  They  were  a  people  devoted  to 
agriculture ;  the  land  under  cultivation  was  not  owned  by 
one  person  or  a  family,  but  by  all  the  members  of  a 
community,  or  mir.  The  heads  of  the  families  composing 
the  mir  assembled  in  a  council  or  vctchc,  which  had 
authority  over  the  mir.  Only  the  house  and  the  dvor 
or  incl(jsure,  and  his  share  in  the  harvest,  were  the  prop- 
erty of  each  householder.     In  the  course  of  time,  several 


28 


of  these  rural  communities  united  in  a  canton  or  county, 
called  a  Z'olost,  which  was  then  governed  by  a  council 
composed  of  the  elders  of  several  communes.  It  happened 
sometimes  that  one  of  these  elders,  who  was  considered 
unusually  wise  or  powerful,  became  chief  of  the  volost, 
a  dignity  which  might  become  hereditary.  This  was 
probably  the  origin  of  the  boyards  or  nobles.  As  a 
rule,  the  volosts  were  proud  of  their  independence ;  they 
disliked  entangling  alliances,  although  in  time  of  danger 
or  necessity  they  would  enter  into  a  confederacy  of 
all  the  counties  belonging  to  the  same  tribe,  which 
was  then  called  plcniia.  lUit  it  was  always  under- 
stood that  such  an  arrangement  was  temporary.  In 
most  of  the  volosts,  there  was  at  least  one  s])ot  forti- 
fied by  earthen  walls  and  wooden  palisades,  where  the 
people  might  take  refuge  in  case  of  an  attack. 

We  know  that  some  of  the  Slav  tribes  attained  some 
degree  of  civilization  as  early  as  the  seventh  century  of 
our  era.  Novgorod  was  a  town,  large  for  that  time, 
w'hich  carried  on  a  brisk  trade  with  Asia.  This  is  amply 
proved  by  the  discovery  of  Asiatic  coins  belonging  to 
that  period.  Although  the  favorite  occupation  of  the 
Slavs  was  agriculture,  the  construction  of  the  fortified 
places  suggests  that  they  were  not  averse  to  increase 
their  wealth  by  an  occasional  raid  upon  their  unprepared 
neighbors.  There  is  other  evidence  that  Novgorod, 
grown  into  a  wealthy  city  in  the  middle  of  the  ninth 
century,  longed  for  peace.  Xo  wonder  that  such  a  com- 
munity sought  for  means  of  security  for  its  commerce. 
Rut  the  manner  in  which  it  accomplished  this  desire, 
decided  the  fate  of  Russia. 


III_THE  XORSEMEX  (OR  VARIXGIAXS)  IN 

RUSSIA 

IT  would  have  been  strange  indeed,  if  the  bold  Xorse- 
men,  the  bold  buccaneers  who  in  their  frail  craft 
pillaged  the  west  coasts  of  Europe  and  extended  their 
voyages  into  the  Mediterranean,  should  have  omitted  to 
pav  a  visit  to  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  Sea.  We  know  that 
thev  settled  in  England  and  h>ance,  and  it  causes  no  sur- 
])rise  when  we  read  that  the  Slavs  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  Baltic  i)ai(l  tribute  to  them.  They  must  have  been 
exacting  tax  collectors,  because  we  read  also  that,  in  859, 
the  Slavs  rose  and  expelled  their  visitors.  Three  years 
later  they  returned  at  the  invitation  of  the  people  of 
Novgorod. 

Nestor,  the  historian  of  the  Slav  race,  who  lived  in  the 
twelfth  century,  and  whose  account  is  remarkablv  clear 
and  trustworthy,  wrote  that  the  inhabitants  of  Xovgorod 
*'  said  to  the  princes  of  Wiringia,  '  Our  land  is  great 
and  fertile,  but  it  lacks  order  and  justice;  come,  take 
possession,  and  govern  us.'  *' 

The  invitation  was  accepted.  Three  brothers,  Rurik 
or  the  Peaceful.  Sineous  or  the  X'ictorious,  and  Truvor  or 
the  Faithful,  proceeded  to  Russia  with  their  families 
and  fighting  men.  Rurik  settled  on  the  south  shore  of 
Lake  Ladoga,  Sineous  on  the  White  Lake,  and  Truvor 

29 


30 


at  Izborsk.     The  two  younger  brothers  died,  and  Rurik 
moved  to  Xovj^orod  where  he  biiiU  a  castle.     At  about 
the  same   time   two  other   Norsemen,   Askold   and   Dir. 
landed  in  Russia,  and  went  to  Kief,  then  also  a  tlourish- 
mg  city,  where  they  were  equally  well  received.     They 
persuaded   its   people  to   prepare  an   expedition   against 
Czargrad,    the    City    of    the    Czar    or    Emperor    of    the 
Eastern  Roman  Empire,  now  known  as  Constantinople, 
but  at  that  time  named   P.yzantium.     The  expedition  of 
Kief  under  Askold  and  Dir  sailed  down  the  Dnieper  in 
a  fleet  of  200  large  boats,  entered  the  Golden  Horn— or 
Bosphorus,— and  began  the  siege  of  Constantinople.    The 
capital  was  saved  by  the  Patriarch  or  head  of  the  (ireek 
Church,   who  plunged  a  wonder-working  robe  into  the 
waves,  whereupon  a  violent  storm  destroyed  the  Russian 

fleet. 

The  two  chiefs,  Askold  and  Dir.  must  have  escaped, 
because  they  were  back  at  Kief  when  that  city  received 
a  disagreeable  visit.  Upon  Rurik's  death,  he  was  suc- 
ceeded, not  by  his  son  Igor,  but  by  his  brother  Oleg  as 
the  eldest  of  the  family.  The  new  prince  or  kiiiac  did 
not  approve  of  rival  Norsemen  in  his  neighborhood. 
With  his  own  men  and  a  large  number  of  Slavs  and 
Finns,  he  marched  upon  Kief,  and  on  his  way  compelled 
Smolensk    and    Loubetch    to    submit    to    his    authority. 

When  he  arrived  before  Kief,  he  succeeded  in  cap- 
turing Askold  and  Dir  who  were  put  to  death  "  because," 
Oleg  explained,  "  they  were  neither  princes  themselves, 
nor  of  the  blood  of  princes."  Kief  was  taken,  and  Oleg 
took  up  his  residence  in  that  city. 

It  is  at  this  time  that  the  name  Russia  first  appears. 


c 

e 

O 

2 


ro 


30 

at  Izborsk.     The  two  youni^cr  limthers  died,  and  Rurik 
moved  to  Xov.i^orod  where  he  huiU  a  castle.     At  about 
the   same   lime   two  other    Norsemen,   Askold   and    Dir. 
landed  in  Russia,  and  went  to  Kief,  then  also  a  llnurish- 
ini,-  cilv.  where  they  were  e(|ually  well   received.     They 
persuaded    its    i)eoi)le    t..    j.repare    an    expedition    at^ainst 
Czar-rad.    the    C'ily    of    the    Czar    ui     I'.mperor    of    the 
h:astern   Roman   i'jnpire,  now  known  as  Constantinople, 
but  at  that   time  named   P.yzantium.     The  expedition  of 
Kief  under   Askold  and   Dir  sailed  down   the  l)niei)er  in 
a  i1eet  of  200  lari^e  boats,  entered  the  (^lolden  Horn — or 
r.osj^horus,— and  beiian  the  siege  of  Constantinople.    The 
cai)ital  was  saved  by  the  Patriarch  <^r  head  of  the  Creek 
Chnrrli.   w I10   phmired   a   wonder-workin.1^   robe   into   the 
waves.  \MKiLup.-ii  a  violent  storm  (lestrnv(>d  the  Russian 

Oeet. 

The  two  chiefs.   Askold  and  Dir.  must  have  escaped, 
because  they  werr  back  ai   Kief  when  that  city  rec.Mved 
a  disagreeable  visit.      Cpon   Rurik's  death,  he  was  .suc- 
ceeded, not  by  his  bon   l.i^or.  but  by  his  brother  ()le.t,^  as 
the  eldest  of  the  family.      Tlu-  new  i)rincr  ..r   kiiiaz  did 
not    approve    of    rival    Norsemen    in    his    neii^hborhood. 
With   h\<  <'wn    nun    and   a   lari;e   number   of   Slavs   and 
Finns,  he  marched  ui)ou  Kief.  an. I  i.n  his  way  compelled 
Smolensk    an<l    Loubetch    to    submit    to    his    authority. 
When   he   arrived   before    Kief,   he   succeeded   in   cap- 
turinir  Ask<»ld  and  Dir  who  ueu  put  to  death  "  because." 
()lo<»-  exi)laine<l,  "  thev   were  neither  i)rince>   themselves, 
nor  of  the  blood  of  i)rinces  "     Kief  was  taken,  and  (  )leg 
took  u])  his  residence  in  that  liL\. 

It  is  at  this  time  that  the  name  Russia  first  appears. 


*> 


c 
<u 

e 

o 
2 


3^ 


Its  derivation  is  doubtful  and  is,  besides,  of  no  great 
importance.  Oleg  ruled  over  Russia,  that  is,  the  plain 
extending  from  Kief  to  Novgorod.  There  is  a  story 
that  he  was  defeated  by  the  Hungarians,  who  liad  crossed 
the  Dnieper,  but  it  is  doubtful,  because  in  the  year  907, 
we  find  him  preparing  another  expedition  against  Con- 
stantinople. On  this  occasion  the  people  of  that  capital 
forgot  to  bring  out  the  robe,  and  tried  to  poison  the 
invaders,  but  their  scheme  was  discovered  in  time;  they 
were  forced  to  pay  a  heavy  tribute  and  Oleg  secured, 
besides,  a  very  advantageous  commercial  treaty. 

One  of  the  wizards  at  (Cleg's  court  had  warned  him 
that  his  favorite  horse  would  be  the  cause  of  his  death, 
and  the  animal  was  kept  away  from  him  until  it  died. 
Oleg  did  not  believe  in  wizards ;  he  insisted  upon  seeing 
the  body  and  entered  the  stable.  A  snake  came  out  of 
the  horse's  skull  and  stung  Oleg  in  the  foot,  and  he  died 
from  the  efifect  of  the  poison. 

.  Igor,  Rurik's  son,  was  the  eldest,  and  succeeded  his 
uncle.  He  led  another  expedition  against  Constantinople, 
but  it  ended  in  disaster,  because  the  Russian  fleet  was 
destroyed  by  Greek  fire.  A  large  number  of  Russians 
were  captured  but  Igor  esca|)e(l.  This  failure  did  not 
prevent  him  from  again  attacking  the  Byzantine  lunpire, 
and  this  time  he  was  successful.  The  emperor  agreed  to 
pay  tribute  and  signed  another  connnercial  treaty. 

Nestor,  the  Russian  historian,  tells  us  the  story  of 
Igor's  death.  "  In  the  year  945,"  he  says,  "  the  drujina  " 
(that  is,  the  body-guard,  composed  of  Norsemen  or  their 
descendants),  "  of  Igor  said  to  him,  '  The  men  of  Sveneld 
are  richly  provided  with  weapons  and  garments,  while 


Z2> 


we  go  in  rags ;  lead  us,  Prince,  to  collect  the  tribute  so 
that  thou  and  we  may  become  rich.'  Igor  consented, 
and  conducted  them  to  the  Drevlians  to  raise  the  tribute. 
He  increased  the  first  imposts,  and  did  them  violence, 
he  and  his  men;  after  having  taken  all  he  wanted,  he 
returned  to  his  city.  While  on  the  road  he  bethought 
himself  and  said  to  his  drujina,  '  Go  on  with  the  tribute; 
I  will  go  l)ack  and  try  to  get  some  more  out  of  them.' 
Leaving  the  greater  part  of  his  men  to  go  on  their  way, 
he  returned  with  only  a  few.  to  the  end  that  he  might 
increase  his  riches.  The  Drevlians,  when  thev  learnt 
that  Igor  was  coming  back,  held  council  with  Nal,  their 
prince.  *  When  the  wolf  enters  the  sheepfold  he  slays 
the  whole  flock,  if  the  shepherd  does  not  slay  him.  Thus 
it  is  with  us  and  Igor;  if  we  do  not  destrov  him,  we 
are  lost.'  Then  they  sent  deputies  who  said  to  him, 
'  why  dost  thou  come  anew  unto  us  ?  Hast  thou  not 
collected  all  the  tribute?'  lUit  Igor  would  not  hear 
them,  so  the  Drevlians  came  out  of  the  town  of  Koros- 
thenes,  and  slew  Igor  and  his  men,  for  they  were  but  a 
few." 

The  drujina  or  body-guard  of  the  duke  was  at  the 
same  time  his  council.  The  men  composing  it  were  con- 
sidered as  members  of  his  family  ;  they  ate  at  his  table 
and  shared  his  amusements  as  well  as  his  toil.  He  did 
nothing  without  consulting  them,  and  was  really  but  the 
first  among  his  |)eers.  They  formed  a  court  of  justice, 
and  it  was  from  among  them  that  he  api)ointed  the 
voievods  or  governors  of  fortresses,  and  possadniks  or 
commandants  of  large  towns.  \\>  have  a  description  of 
the  courts  of  that  time  bv  an  Arab  writer  named  Ibn 


34 

Dost.  He  says :  ''  When  a  Russian  brings  a  complaint 
against  another,  he  summons  him  before  the  court  of 
the  prince  where  both  state  their  case.  When  the  prince 
has  pronounced  his  verdict,  his  orders  are  executed ;  but 
if  both  parties  are  dissatisfied,  the  (hspute  must  be  decided 
by  weapons.  He  whose  sword  cuts  sharper,  gains  his 
cause.  At  the  time  of  the  fight,  the  relatives  of  the  two 
adversaries  appear  armed,  and  surround  the  space  set 
apart.  The  combatants  then  come  to  blows,  and  the 
victor  may  impose  any  terms  he  pleases." 

The   people   of   the   country,    the   peasants,    were   not 
quite  so  free  as  when  Rurik  landed.     They  began  to  be 
known  as  inoujik,  a  contemptuous  diminutive  of  the  word 
mouj  or  man,  hterally  manikin.     The  merchants  or  i^osti 
did  not  form  a  distinct  class,  but  in  larger  cities,  such  as 
Novgorod  and  Kief,  tliey  had  a  voice  in  the  administra- 
tion. These  cities  had  a  vetche  or  municipal  council  which 
directed  the  city's  business  without  any  direct  interference 
from  the  prince.    The  successors  of  Rurik  attended  to  the 
defense  of  the  country,  the  administration  of  justice,  and 
the   collection    of   tribute   and   taxes,    which    sources   of 
revenue  were  appropriated  by  them  and  served  for  their 
support  and  for  that  of  the  drujina. 

The  Slavs  of  that  time  exhibited  many  characteristics 
which  we  recognize  in  the  Russians  of  our  time.  Leo  the 
Deacon,  a  noted  writer  of  that  time,  mentions  that  they 
fought  in  a  compact  body,  and  seemed  like  a  wall  of 
irom  bristling  with  lances,  glittering  with  shields,  whence 
rang  a  ceaseless  clamor  like  the  waves  of  the  sea.  A 
huge  shield  covered  them  to  their  feet,  and.  when  they 
fought   in    retreat,   they   turned   this   enormous   buckler 


35 


on  their  backs  and  became  invulnerable.  The  fury 
of  the  battle  frenzied  them.  'Hicy  were  never  seen  to 
surrender.  When  victory  was  lust  they  stabbed  them- 
selves, for  they  believed  that  those  who  died  by  the  hand 
of  an  enemy  were  condemned  to  serve  him  in  the  life 
after  death.  The  emperors  of  Byzantium  were  glad  to 
secure  their  services,  and  the  ross,  as  they  called  them, 
often  formed  the  body-guard.  In  the  r)yzantine  expedi- 
tion against  Crete,  700  Russians  served  in  the  army. 

The  Norsemen  readily  adapted  themselves  to  the  habits, 
customs,  and  language  of  the  people  among  whom  they 
settled.  We  find  the  Xorse  names  of  Rurik.  Oleg,  and 
Igor,  but  after  the  last  named  their  descendants  were 
Russians  and  bore  Russian  names. 

At  Igor's  death  his  son  Sviatoslaf  was  still  a  minor, 
whose  mother,  Olga,  became  Regent.  She  was  a  woman 
of  determination,  whose  first  thought  was  to  avenge  the 
death  of  her  husband.  The  Drevlians,  hearing  of  her 
preparations,  sent  two  deputations  to  appease  her:  not  a 
man  returned.  They  were  all  put  to  death  at  her  com- 
mand. Nestor  tells  us  that  Olga  herself  commanded 
her  warriors  at  the  siege  of  Korosthenes,  and  that  she 
oflfered  to  make  peace  on  payment  of  a  tribute  of  three 
l)igeons  and  three  sparrows  for  every  house.  This  was 
accepted  and  the  birds  were  delivered,  when  she  ordered 
lighted  tow  to  be  fastened  to  their  tails,  and  when  they 
flew  back  to  the  wooden  town,  they  set  fire  to  the  houses 
and  barns.  Korosthenes  was  then  captured  and  a  great 
number  of  its  inhabitants  were  slaughtered  and  the  rest 
were  made  slaves. 

It  seems  strange  that  such  a  woman  should  have  been 


I, 


3<; 

the  first  of  Riirik's  house  to  embrace  Christianity.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  she  visited  Constantinople  where  she 
astonished  the  emperor  by  the  force  of  her  character. 
She  was  baptized  and  received  the  name  of  Helen.  It 
is  quite  possible  that  she  came  to  Constantinoi)le  for  that 
purpose,  because  we  read  that  she  refused  to  be  baptized 
at  Kief  '*  for  fear  of  the  pa.i^ans."  This  confirms  the 
Greek  records  in  which  it  is  stated  that  a  bishop  was 
established  in  Russia.  ])robably  at  Kief,  in  the  time  of 
Oleg. 

It  is  not  strantre  that  Christianity  should  have  taken 
root  in  Russia  after  the  frequent  wars  with  the  l)yzantine 
Empire,  and  considering^  the  commerce  carried  on  between 
Kief  and  Constantinople.  Missionaries  entered  Russia  at 
an  earlv  period.  Two  of  them,  Cyril  and  Methodius, 
prepared  a  Slavonic  alphabet,  in  which  many  Greek 
letters  were  used,  and  the  liible  was  translated  into  that 
language.  There  is  a  tradition  that  Askold  was  baptized 
after  his  defeat  at  Constantinople,  and  that  this  is  the 
reason  why  the  people  still  worship  at  his  tomb  at  Kief, 
as  of  that  of  the  first  Christian  prince.  The  Norsemen 
had  no  taste  for  persecution  on  account  of  religious  belief, 
but  for  themselves  they  clung  to  the  heathen  deities. 
When  Igor  swore  to  observe  the  treaty  concluded  with 
Emperor  Leo  M,  he  went  up  to  the  hill  of  Rerun  and 
used  the  ancient  Slavonic  rites ;  but  the  emperor's 
deputies  went  to  the  church  of  St.  Elias,  and  there  laid 
their  hands  upon  the  P.ible  as  a  token  of  good  faith. 

The  drujina  and  warriors  did  not  take  kindh'  to  Chris- 
tianity. They,  as  well  as  the  peasants,  preferred  to 
worship  Rerun  and  Voloss.     The  same  thing  happened 


V 


i 


) 
I 


37 

elsewhere.  Christianity  made  the  greatest  progress  in 
cities,  whereas  the  dwellers  on  the  *'  heath  "  remained 
"  heathen."  *'  When  one  of  the  warriors  of  the  prince 
wished  to  become  a  convert,"  says  Nestor,  "  he  was  not 
prevented ;  they  simply  laughed  at  him."  When  Olga 
returned  from  Constantinople,  she  was  anxious  that  her 
son,  who  was  of  age  and  had  succeeded  to  his  father, 
should  follow  her  example.  Sviatoslaf  refused ;  "  my 
men  will  laugh  at  me,"  was  his  usual  answer.  Nestor 
mentions  that  he  sometimes  lost  his  temper.  Chris- 
tianity did  not  make  much  progress  during  his  reign. 

He  was  a  warrior,  like  his  Norse  ancestors.  In  the 
brief  time  of  eight  years,  964-972,  he  found  time  to  wage 
two  wars.  The  first  was  with  the  Khazar  empire  on  the 
Don.  Sviatoslaf  captured  its  capital,  the  White  City, 
and  received  tribute  from  two  tribes  of  the  Caucasus. 
The  second  war  did  not  turn  out  so  well. 

From  Nestor's  account  and  that  of  Leo  the  Deacon, 
it  appears  that  the  liyzantine  emperor,  wishing  to  make 
use  of  Sviatoslaf,  decided  to  find  out  what  sort  of  man 
he  was.  He  therefore  sent  him  presents  of  gold  and 
fine  clothes,  but  the  grandson  of  Rurik  would  scarcely 
look  at  them  and  told  his  warriors  to  take  them  away. 
W  hen  the  emperor  heard  this,  he  sent  him  a  fine  sword 
and  other  weapons ;  these  were  accepted  with  every 
token  of  satisfaction  by  Sviatoslaf.  When  the  emperor 
was  informed  of  the  result,  he  exclaimed :  "  This  must 
be  a  fierce  man,  because  he  despises  wealth  and  accepts 
a  sword  as  tribute.'' 

This  did  not  prevent  the  emperor,  who  had  a  private 
quarrel    with    Peter,    Czar    of    Bulgaria,    from    urging 
Sto.  of  Russia — 3 


38 


Sviatoslaf  to  make  war  upon  his  enemy.  The  Russian 
irave  a  lieartv  consent,  and  in  a  very  short  time  he 
captured  several  fortresses  and  Tereiaslaf,  the  capital, 
fell  into  his  hands.  lie  determined  to  transfer  his  capital 
there,  and  when  he  returned  to  Kief,  he  told  his  mother 
of  the  city  on  the  Danuhe.  *'  The  place."  he  said,  "  is 
the  central  p(Mnt  of  my  territory,  and  ahounds  in  wealth. 
Precious  goods,  gold,  wine,  and  all  kinds  of  fruit,  come 
from  Greece.  Silver  and  horses  are  brought  from  the 
country  of  the  Czechs  and  Hungarians,  and  the  Russians 
bring  money,  furs,  wax,  and  slaves." 

Meanwhile  the  emi)eror  of  Constantinople  was  dead  ; 
his  successor,  John  Zimisces  was  a  very  different  man, 
who  preferred  having  a  weak  lUilgarian  ruler  as  his 
neighbor,  instead  of  an  empire  which,  even  at  that  time, 
extended  from  Lakes  Ladoga  and  Onega  to  the  Balkans. 
He,  therefore,  made  up  his  mind  to  oust  the  Russians. 
Sviatoslaf  had  left  lUdgaria,  but  he  returned  and  recon- 
quered it,  when  he  received  a  demand  from  the  new 
emperor  to  execute  the  treaty  entered  into  with  his 
predecessor,  that  is,  to  leave  lUdgaria.  Sviatoslaf 
replied  i)rou(lly  that  he  expected  to  visit  the  emperor  at 
Constantinople  before  long,  but  Zimisces,  a  brave  and 
able  man,  took  measures  to  prevent  it.  liefr-e  Sviatoslaf 
expected  him.  Zimisces  attacked  and  defeated  the  Rus- 
sians in  the  defiles  of  the  Balkan,  and  soon  after  stormed 
and  captured  Pereiaslaf.  Eight  thousand  Russians  with- 
drew into  the  castle,  which  they  defended  heroically. 
They  refused  to  surrender  and,  when  the  castle  was  set 
on  fire,  they  perished  in  the  flames. 

When   Sviatoslaf  heard  of  this  disaster,  he  advanced 


39 

against  the  emperor.  The  Greek  historian  says  that  the 
Russian  army  was  60,000  men  strong,  but  Nestor  gives 
the  number  at  10,000.  The  two  armies  met  and  both 
fought  with  desperate  valor,  but  at  last  the  Russians  gave 
wav  before  the  furious  charges  of  the  (ireek  cavalry — 
the  Ironsides — and  withdrew  to  Dorostol.  Zimisces 
started  in  jntrsuit,  and  laid  siege  to  the  city  wdiere  the 
same  courage  was  displayed.  After  Sviatoslaf  drew^  his 
men  up  out  of  the  city  and  prepared  to  give  battle, 
Zimisces  proposed  to  him  to  decide  the  issue  by  a  personal 
fight,  but  the  offer  was  declined.  "  I  know  better  than 
mv  enemy  what  I  have  to  do,"  said  Sviatoslaf.  "  H 
he  is  weary  of  life,  there  are  a  thousand  ways  by  w^iich 
he  can  end  his  days."  The  battle  ended  in  defeat  for  the 
Russians  who.  Leo  the  Deacon  tells  us,  left  15.500  dead, 
and  20000  shields  on  the  battlefield.  Sviatoslaf  was 
compelled  to  come  to  terms.  Zimisces  permitted  him 
and  what  remained  of  his  army  to  return  to  Russia,  after 
he  had  sworn  by  Perun  and  \'oloss  that  he  would  never 
again  invade  the  empire,  but  would  hclj)  in  defending  it 
airainst  its  enemies.  If  he  broke  his  oath,  he  wished  that 
he  might  "  become  as  yellow  as  gold,  and  perish  by  his 
own  arms."  Zimisces  showed  the  nobility  of  a  brave  man. 
He  sent  messengers  to  a  warlike  tribe  requesting  a  free 
passage  for  the  Russians;  but  this  tribe  was  anxious  to 
seize  the  opportunity.  Sviatoslaf  and  his  men  were 
attacked  near  the  Cataracts  of  the  Dnieper;  he  was 
killed,  but  most  of  his  men  escaped.  (A.  D.  [)72.) 


r.' 


(40^ 


Vladimir 


IV— SAINT    VLADIMIR    AND    lAROSLAF    THE 

GREAT 

SVIATOSLAF  had  dividcci  the  empire  anionfT^  his  three 
sons ;  he  left  Novgorod  to  Vla(Hmir,  the  eldest ; 
Oleg,  the  second,  was  made  prince  of  the  Drevlians,  and 
the  youngest,  laropolk,  received  Kief.  As  happens  often, 
none  of  the  three  was  satisfied  with  his  share,  and 
civil  wars  followed.  ( )leg  was  killed  by  laropolk,  wdiere- 
npon  the  youngest  son  of  Sviatoslaf  was  slain  by  his 
brother  X'ladimir,  who  thus  became  the  sole  heir  and 
successor  to  his  father.  His  first  act  was  to  make 
war  upon  Poland,  lie  compelled  it  to  restore  Red 
Russia  or  Old  Gallicia.  a  territory  in  our  tmie  divided 
into  seven  governments,  or  ])rovinces.  He  also  reduced 
two  revolted  tribes,  and  forced  the  Lithuanians  and 
Livonians  to  pay  tribute. 

At  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  X'ladimir  showed  an 
unusual  devotion  to  the  old  Slav  gods.  He  erected  idols 
on  the  sandy  cliflFs  of  Kief ;  that  of  Perun  had  a  head 
of  silver  and  a  beard  of  gold.  It  seems  that  after  some 
time  he  became  displeased  with  this  religion  and,  Nestor 
tells  us,  he  grew  anxious  to  know  what  religion  was  the 
best.  He,  therefore,  sent  deputies  to  l^iulgaria  to  study 
the  Moslem  or  Mohammedan  creed,  and  to  the  Khazars, 

41 


I 


(¥i 


Vladimir 


I\_SAIXT    \LADIMIR    AXD    lAROSLAF    THE 

S\  lA  l(  )S1. Al'  had  dividcMl  ilio  enipirr  ann^nj^  his  three 
sons:  lie  left  Xovi^orod  lo  \  ladimir,  the  eldest; 
(  )lej^,  the  >cet»nd.  was  made  i)riiice  of  tlie  1  )revlians.  and 
the  youn^^est,  lampolk  received  Kief.  As  happens  often, 
none  of  the  ihrre  was  satistiecl  with  his  share,  and 
eivil  uar.s  follow  cm  1.  (  )\c'^  was  killed  1)\'  laropolk.  where- 
npon  the  yonni^esl  son  of  Sviatoslaf  was  slain  1)y  liis 
hrother  \  ladimir.  who  thus  hecame  the  sole  heir  and 
siiccess(»r  to  his  father.  His  first  act  was  to  make 
war  npon  I'ohmd.  \\c  compeHed  it  lo  restore  Red 
Russia  or  (  )ld  ( lallicia.  a  territory  in  our  mne  divided 
into  seven  i^overnments,  or  i)rovinces.  lie  also  reduced 
two  revolted  irihes,  and  forced  the  Lithuanians  and 
Liv(»nians   to  ])ay   trihute. 

At  the  hei^innini;  of  his  rei^n,  \  ladimir  sliowed  an 
unusual  devotion  to  the  old  Slav  i^ods.  lie  erected  idols 
on  the  sandy  cliffs  of  Kief;  that  of  iVrun  had  a  head 
of  silver  and  a  heard  of  v;('>\(\.  It  seems  that  after  some 
time  he  hecame  displeased  with  this  relii^ion  anil.  Xestor 
tells  u>,  he  i^^rew  anxious  to  know  what  relii^ion  was  the 
best.  He.  therefc^re,  sent  de])uties  to  Ihiliiaria  to  studv 
the  Moslem  or  .\h)hammedan  creed,  and  to  the  Khazars, 

41 


'SSv 


42 

who  occupied  the  plain  hetvveen  the  Buii:  ^^^  the  Vol^a, 
to  make  iii(|uiries  ahout  the  Jewish  faith.  hVoni  the 
Poles  and  dernians  he  wanted  to  know  all  ahout  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  at  Constantinople  he  ex- 
pected to  learn  of  the  Cireek  faith.  When  these  deputies 
returned  and  reported  to  him,  X'ladimir  selected  the  Cireek 
Church,  which  choice  was  approved  hv  his  drujina;  "if 
the  Creek  relis^ion  had  not  heen  the  hest,  your  j^rand- 
mother  Olga,  the  wisest  of  mortals,  would  not  have 
adopted  it,''  said  they.  Thus  Madimir  hecame  a  convert ; 
hut  his  method  of  showings  it  was  rather  peculiar. 

He  might  have  l)een  haptized  hy  the  hishop  of  Kief ; 
or,  if  he  had  aj)plied  at  Constantinople,  the  emperor 
would  gladly  have  sent  him  a  high  jjrelate  to  perform 
the  service.  Instead  of  this.  X'ladimir  collected  an  army 
and  marched  against  Kherson, — the  last  city  in  Russia 
held  by  the  lUzantine.  It  was  taken  hy  means  of  treach- 
erv.  and  from  this  city  X'ladimir  sent  to  Constantinople 
to  demand  in  marriage  the  sister  of  the  two  emperors 
Basil  and  Constantine.  Although  the  emperors  did  not 
like  the  proposed  connection,  they  consented  hecause  they 
feared  an  invasion,  hut  made  it  a  condition  that  X'lad- 
imir should  be  baptized.  The  ceremony  was  performed  at 
Kherson  ;  soon  after  the  bride  arrived  and  the  marriage 
took  place  in  the  same  city.  XX'hen  he  returned  to  Kief, 
he  carried  with  him  the  priests  and  sacred  ornaments 
taken  from  the  churches  of  Kherson. 

Upon  his  return  to  Kief,  he  began  missionary  work  by 
his  own  peculiar  methods.  His  first  orders  were  to  pull 
down  the  idols;  during  the  execution  the  people  wept, 
moaned,   and   wrung   their   hands.      Perun's   image   was 


43 

handsomely  flogged  and  thrown  into  the  Dnieper.  Since 
it  was  made  of  wood,  it  soon  came  to  the  surface,  which 
was  looked  upon  as  a  miracle  by  the  people  who  rushed 
down  to  worship  it.  But  XTadimir's  soldiers  gave  it 
another  bath,  and  this  time  it  was  caught  by  the  current 
and  drifted  away.  The  cliff  where  it  stood  is  still  known 
at  Kief  as  **  the  devil's  leap,"  and  the  spot  where  Perun 
floated  ashore,  is  shown  to  visitors. 

After  thus  getting  rid  of  the  idols,  X'ladimir  com- 
manded the  people  of  Kief,  men,  women,  and  children, 
to  plunge  into  the  Dnieper,  which  had  been  consecrated 
for  the  occasion,  that  they  might  be  baptized.  XX'hen  they 
had  obeyed  his  order,  the  priests  read  the  service,  so 
that  after  entering  into  the  river  as  heathen,  they  left  it 
as  Christians.  The  peoj^le  of  Novgorod  were  converted 
in  the  same  swift  and  practical  manner,  since  no  attention 
was  paid  to  their  objections. 

Heathen  temples  were  next  converted  into  churches, 
which  were  decorated  by  Creek  artists.    Madimir  erected 
at  Kief  the  church  of  St.  Basil,  on  the  place  where  Perun's 
imaee  had  stood.     Numerous  other  churches  were  built ; 
he  also  founded  schools  where  the   l^ible  was  taught  in 
the  Slav  language.     At  first  the  people  objected  to  send 
their   children,   because   they   looked   upon    reading   and 
writing  as  magic.     But  X'ladimir  had  persuasive  ways, 
and   was  not   likely  to  be  deterred  by   such   opposition. 
Nestor  admired  him  very  much.     He  says  that  X'ladimir 
was  a  different  man  after  he  had  been  converted  ;  that  he 
was  so  afraid  of  committing  a  sin,  that  he  hesitated  to 
infiict    capital    i)unishment,    until    the    bishop    reminded 
him  that  crime  must  be  punished.     He  also  divided  his 


44 


income  among  the  churches,  and  thus  became  the  Saint 
X'huhniir  of  Russia.  Popular  ballads  keep  alive  the 
memory  of  the  first  Christian  i)rince.  He  is  often  men- 
tioned in  them  as  "  The  Beautiful  Sun  "  of  Kief. 

It  cannot  be  supposed  that  the  Russian  people  were 
converted  at  once  into  good  Christians  by  X'ladimir's 
forceful  method.  Several  centuries  were  to  pass  away 
before  the  peasants  could  be  induced  to  part  with  their 
heathen  customs.  The  priests  preferred  to  let  them 
remain  under  a  Christian  name.  There  is  something 
mystic  in  the  Slav  character.  He  nurses  the  belief  in 
magicians  and  sorcerers,  which  has  never  been  uprooted. 
It  is  seen  at  present  in  the  worship  of  the  cikon  or  saint's 
image. 

Madimir  died  in  1015.  He,  too,  divided  Russia  among 
his  numerous  sons.  One  of  them,  laroslaf,  received 
Novgorod,  where  he  began  to  interfere  with  the  rights 
of  the  people.  A  deputation  of  leading  citizens  came  to 
him  with  a  protest.  He  ordered  their  arrest  and  con- 
demned them  to  death.  Meanwhile  Madimir's  othet 
heirs  had  indulged  in  the  usual  quarrels  and  wars,  until 
it  seemed  as  if  Sviato|)olk,  a  nei)hew,  would  become  the 
sole  ruler.  laroslaf  then  called  the  i)rinci|)al  people  of 
Novgorod  together,  and  threw  himself  ui)on  their  gen- 
erosity. They  forgave  him  and  promised  their  support. 
They  kept  their  word,  and  after  a  long  and  bloody  war 
he  entered  Kief  as  his  father's  successor. 

laroslaf  was  unfortunate  in  a  war  with  the  Byzantine 
Empire.  The  Russian  fleet  was  badly  defeated  in  the 
Bosphorus;  8,000  men  were  killed,  and  800  prisoners 
were   taken    to   Constantinople. 


45 


Of  greater  importance  was  laroslaf's  work  at  home. 
He  built  churches  and  monasteries;  St.  Sophia  church 
was  the  pride  of  Kief;  the  monastery  of  The  Catacombs 
still  draws  pilgrims  from  all  parts  of  Russia.  Kief 
became  known  as  "  the  city  of  four  hundred  churches." 
He  also  founded  a  school  for  three  hundred  boys  at 
Novgorod,  thereby  showing  that  Russia  at  that  time 
was  second  to  no  European  nation. 

Kief,  under  his  reign,  was  one  of  the  most  ])rosperous 
cities.  This  was  due  to  her  situation  on  the  Dnieper  and 
her  trade  with  the  liyzantine  hZmpire,  to  the  great  fertility 
of  the  Black  Earth  land,  and  to  laroslaf's  connection  bv 
marriage  with  the  reigning  families  of  ICurope.  Of  his 
daughters  Elizabeth  was  the  wife  of  the  King  of  Norway, 
Anne  of  the  King  of  hVance,  and  Anastasia  of  the  Kine 
of  Hungary;  his  sister  Marv  was  married  to  the  Kinir 
of  Poland,  and  his  sons  had  married  into  royal  families. 
Merchants  from  Holland,  (iermany,  Hungary,  and  Scan- 
dinavia were  established  at  Kief.  The  Dnieper  was  alive 
with  merchant  vessels,  and  she  counted  eight  markets. 
It  is  evident  that  laroslaf  took  pains  to  protect  and 
advance  commerce.  He  had  coins  minted  with  his  Slav 
name  on  one  side,  and  his  Christian  name  loury  (George), 
on  the  other. 

Perhaps  his  greatest  work  is  the  code  of  laws  estab- 
lished by  him,  known  as  the  Riisska'ia  Prarda  or  Russian 
Right.  Though  necessarily  jirimitive,  it  was  a  long  step 
in  advance  of  that  time.  It  followed  chieflv  the  ideas  of 
right  and  wrong  according  to  the  concejjtions  of  the 
Scandinavians. 

At  this  time,  although  the  dignitv  of  kniaz,  duke  or 


46 


prince,  was  hereditary  in  the  family  of  Rurik,  it  was 
understood  hy  all  i)arties  that  the  reign  of  the  prince 
depended  upon  the  consent  of  his  suhjects,  and  perhaps 
more  still  upon  that  of  his  drujina.  A  story  is  told  that 
in  \'ladimir's  time  the  drujina  complained  that  they  were 
made  to  eat  from  wooden  bowls,  whereupon  he  £^ave 
them  silver  ones,  sayinir:  I  could  not  buy  myself  a  drujina 
with  i^old  and  silver;  but  with  a  drujina.  I  can  acquire 
p)l(l  and  silver,  as  did  niy  father  and  my  grandfather. 

Ever  since  Kief  had  been  the  residence  of  Rurik's 
descendants,  they  had  been  recognized  as  (irand  Dukes, 
because  they  represented  the  eldest  of  the  descend- 
ants. They  did  not.  as  a  rule,  interfere  with  the 
administration,  but  were  the  dukes,  the  commanders  of  the 
armies.  Many  districts  had  such  a  duke,  who  was. 
however,  invariably  of  the  blood  of  Rurik.  and  recognized 
the  superior  authority  as  the  eldest  of  the  blood.  When 
the  C;rand  Duke  of  Kief  died,  he  was  not  succeeded  by 
his  son,  unless  he  had  neither  uncle  nor  brother  livino^- 
but  it  was  within  the  power  of  the  grand  duke  to  leave 
one  or  more  districts  to  his  sons. 

The  descendants  of  the  Norsemen  were,  therefore, 
the  defenders  of  the  districts  which  they  ruled  as  dukes. 
Novgorod  and  Pskof  were  republics  on  the  northwest 
frontier,  and  usually  had  the  same  duke.  Smolensk  was 
an  important  dukedom,  because  it  contained  the  sources 
of  the  X'olga.  the  Dniei)er.  and  the  Dwina,  and  embraced 
the  ancient  forest  of  ( )kof.  Not  far  from  it  was  the 
dukedom  of  Toropetz.  On  the  Tpper  Oka  was  Tcher- 
nigof— a  rival  of  Kief;  further  to  the  south  was  Nov- 
gorod-Swerki.  and  east  of  the  Upper  Don,  extending  as 


47 


far  as  the  Oka.  were  Riazan  and  Mourom.    The  dukedom 
of  Souzdal.  inhabited  by  a  mixture  of  Finns  and  Slavs, 
was    in    the    north,    the    soil    still    covered    by    forests. 
Southeast  Russia  embraced  Red  Russia,  that  is  Volhvnia 
and  ( iallicia  Proper. 

The  introduction  of  the  (ireek  Church  caused  impor- 
tant changes.  The  (ireek  Priests  could  not  comprehend 
the  relation  between  the  people  and  its  defenders.  To 
them  the  duke  was  not  a  du.v  (leader),  but  a  Qesar, 
Kaiser,  or  Czar,  ruling,  not  with  the  consent  of  the 
governed,  but  by  the  grace  of  Cod,  as  did  the  emperors  at 
Constantinople.  This  idea  gradually  penetrated  into  the 
minds  of  the  several  dukes,  until  it  was  accepted  and  en- 
forced by  them. 

Another  very  important  change  was  effected  by  the 
Greek  religion.  We  have  seen  that  according  to  the  old 
Slav  customs,  it  was  not  the  son  who  succeeded  as  the 
head  of  the  family,  but  its  eldest  member.  It  appears 
that  the  same  custom  prevailed  among  the  Norsemen, 
as  we  have  seen  that  it  was  Rurik's  brother,  and  not  his 
son  who  succeeded  him.  In  the  l»yzantine  Empire,  the 
oldest  son  was  the  heir,  and  the  priests  tried  to  introduce 
this  as  a  law. 

As  the  descendants  of  Rurik  increased  in  number,  it 
was  not  always  easy  to  determine  who  was  entitled  to 
the  succession.  Hence  there  were  often  several  claimants, 
and  as  a  result,  civil  wars  followed.  These  wars,  strange 
as  it  may  appear,  served  to  bind  the  dukedoms  together, 
because  most  of  them  were  waged  for  the  purpose  of 
establishing  the  claim  of  a  duke  upon  the  possession  of 
Kief. 


48 


laroslaf  died  in  1054,  and  was  Iniried  in  the  cluireh  of 
St.  Sophia  at  Kief.  In  his  will  we  see  the  effect  of  the 
Greek  Church,  for  he  specially  appointed  his  eldest  son 
Isiaslaf  as  his  successor.  A  younger  brother,  Sviatoslaf, 
took  up  arms,  and  expelled  him  in  1073.  I'pon  his  death 
in  1076,  Isiaslaf  returned  to  Kief,  where  he  lived  two 
years.  He  died  in  1078,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother  \  sevolod,  who  was  j^rand  duke  until  io()3, 
when  he  was  succeeded  by  Sviatopolk,  the  son  of  Isiaslaf, 
as  the  eldest  of  the  family.  He  was  not  opposed  by 
Vsevolod's  famous  son  Madimir  Monomachus,  who 
admitted  that  Sviatopolk's  "  father  was  older  than  mine, 
and  reigned  first  in  Kief." 


fcsf:i 


V— A  RUSSIAN   REPUBLIC 


Q\^IATOPOLK  reigned  from  1093  to  11 13.  It  was  at 
^^  this  time  that  Russia  was  disturbed  by  two  civil 
wars.  At  the  instance  of  Madimir  Monomachus  a  con- 
gress of  dukes  met  in  1097,  at  Loubetch  on  the  Dnieper  to 
discuss  the  folly  of  civil  wars  which  placed  the  countrv 
at  the  mercy  of  its  enemies.  An  agreement  was  con- 
cluded, wherein  the  dukes  swore  upon  the  Cross  that 
"  henceforth  the  Russian  land  shall  be  considered  the 
country  of  us  all,  and  whoso  shall  dare  arm  himself 
against  his  brother,  shall  be  our  common  enemy." 

Soon  after  this  a  (piarrel  broke  out  about  the  succession 
of  \'olhyuia,  and  again  the  country  was  plunged  into 
civil  strife,  which  lasted  two  years.  In  1100  another 
congress  was  held  at  \'ititchevo,  on  the  left  bank  of  die 
Dnieper,  where  the  disi)ute  was  settled,  and  it  was 
resolved  to  unite  in  a  war  with  a  i)owerful  nomad  peo])le. 
The  Russians  under  X'ladimir  Monomachus  cfained  a 
brilliant  victory  ;  the  nomads  had  seventeen  khans  killed 
on  the  battlefield. 

When  Sviatopolk  died,  the  people  of  Kief  declared  that 
they  would  have  no  grand  duke  excei)t  X'ladimir.  He 
declined  saying  that  there  were  elder  heirs  entitled  to  the 
succession  ;  but  when  troubles  broke  out  in  the  city,  he 

49 


so 


gave  his  consent.  During  his  reign  of  twelve  years, 
from  1 113  tu  1125,  Kief  reached  the  height  of  prosperity 
and  power.  He  reduced  Souzdal,  in  the  north,  to  sub- 
mission, and  made  many  improvements.  His  memory  is 
cherished  in  Russia.  He  compiled  a  set  of  instructions 
for  his  sons,  from  which  we  may  judge  of  his  character. 
Among  other  remarks,  he  says:  *'  It  is  neither  by  fasting, 
nor  solitude,  nor  the  life  in  a  cloister  that  will  procure 
for  you  the  life  eternal, — it  is  doing  good.  Do  not  forget 
the  poor  but  feed  them.  Do  not  bury  your  wealth  in 
the  bosom  of  the  earth,  for  that  is  contrary  to  the  precepts 
of  Christianity.  Re  a  father  to  orphans,  judge  the  cause 
of  widows  yourself."  '*  Put  to  death  no  one  be  he 
innocent  or  guilty,  for  nothing  is  more  precious  than 
the  soul  of  a  Christian."  ''  When  you  have  learned  any- 
thing useful,  try  to  preserve  it  in  your  memory,  and  strive 
ceaselessly  to  acquire  knowledge.  Without  ever  leaving 
his  palace,  my  father  spoke  five  languages,  a  thing  that 
foreigners  admire  in  us/' 

There  are  in  the  museum  at  Moscow,  a  throne  and 
crown,  supposed  to  have  belonged  to  this  noble  and 
patriotic  duke ;  unfortunately  it  has  been  shown  that  they 
were  never  in  his  possession. 

In  his  will,  Vladimir  gave  the  dukedom  of  Souzdal  to 
his  son  George  Dolgorouki,  and  another  son,  Mstislaf, 
succeeded  as  grand  duke  at  Kief.  When  the  latter  died 
in  1 146,  leaving  the  grand  dukedom  to  his  son  Isiaslaf, 
George  Dolgorouki  claimed  the  succession  as  the  eldest 
of  the  family.  Roth  sides  were  supported  bv  their 
friends,  ^nd  some  fierce  battles  were  fought,  but  Tsiaslaf 
maintained  himself  until  his  death  in   1157.     After  his 


reign.  Kiel's  importance  began  to  decrease.  Twelve 
years  later,  in  i  Ux;.  it  was  captured  by  the  Russians  of 
the  north.  A  native  historian  '  says  of  this  event :  "  This 
mother  of  Russian  cities  had  been  many  times  besieged 
and  oppressed.  She  had  often  opened  her  (iolden  Gate 
to  her  enemies,  but  none  had  ever  yet  entered  by  force. 
To  their  eternal  shame,  the  victors  forgot  that  they,  too, 
were  Russians!  During  three  days  not  only  the  houses, 
but  the  cloisters,  churches,  and  even  the  temples  of  St. 
Soi)hi;i  and  the  Dime,  were  given  over  to  pillage.  The 
precious  images,  the  sacerdotal  ornaments,  the  books, 
and  the  bells, — all  were  carried  off." 

With  the  fall  of  Kief,  the  scene  of  Russian  activity 
shifts  to  the  north.  There,  in  the  dukedom  of  Souzdal, 
George  Dolgorouki  laid,  in  1147,  the  foundation  of  a 
town,  Moscow,  on  a  height  overlooking  the  Moscowa. 
For  many  years  it  remained  an  obscure  village,  and  gave 
no  sign  of  its  future  greatness. 

The  chief  interest  at  this  time  centers  about  the  Russian 
republics,  Novgorod,  Pskof,  and  \'iatka.  Although  Nov- 
gorod did  not  possess  the  advantages  of  Kief,  since  its 
soil  was  sandy,  marshy,  and  unproductive,  the  enterprise 
of  its  people  made  it  the  wealthiest  and  most  populous 
city  of  Russia.  It  is  recorded  that  it  counted  100,000 
inhabitants,  when  Rurik  arrived  in  Russia.  He  and 
his  immediate  successors  were  satisfied  with  the  position 
of  Defender,  which  suited  their  warlike  and  blunt  char- 
acter, and  with  the  revenues  assigned  to  them,  which  with 
the  spoils  taken  from  the  enemy,  were  ample  for  their 
wants.     These  rei)ublics  were  administered  by  a  vetche 

1  Karamsin. 


5^ 


or  municipal  council,  with  a  possadnik  or  burgomaster, 
whose  duty  it  was  to  see  that  the  city's  privileges  were 
preserved,  and  who  distributed  the  taxes.  He  shared 
with  the  duke  in  the  administration  of  justice.  There 
was  a  militia  for  the  defense  of  the  people's  rights,  com- 
manded by  a  tysatski.  livery  ward  of  the  city  had  a 
starost,  charged  with  preserving  the  ])eace.  It  is  said 
that  a  written  constitution,  partaking  of  the  nature  of  the 
Magna  Charta,  was  granted  to  Novgorod  by  laroslaf 
the  Great.  The  duke's  rights  and  i)rivileges,  his  duties 
and  his  revenues,  were  carefully  set  down.  He  was 
entitled  to  the  tribute  of  some  of  die  volosts, — cantons 
or  counties, — and  to  certain  fines ;  he  could  gather  in 
his  harvests  at  stated  times,  and  wa^^  not  permitted  to 
hunt  in  the  forest  except  in  the  auiunui.  He  could 
neither  execute  nor  annul  a  judgment  without  the 
approval  of  the  possadnik.  and  he  was  expressly  forbidden 
to  carry  a  lawsuit  beyond  Novgorod.  livery  duke, 
before  he  entered  upon  his  office,  was  compelled  to  take 
an  oath  to  this  constitution. 

The  members  of  the  vetche  were  elected  by  a  unani- 
mous vote,  instead  of  by  a  majority.  This  gave  rise  to 
fre(|uent,  and  sometimes  very  serious  disorder,  because 
if  a  minority  did  not  approve  of  the  candidate,  they  were 
apt  to  be  illtreated.  There  were  occasions  when  two 
rival  vetches  were  elected,  and  when  this  happened  in 
the  two  parts  of  the  city  divided  by  tlie  river  \'olkhof, 
the  bridge  between  them  was  often  the  scene  of  a  free 
fight.  Owing  to  the  extensive  trade  connections,  the  mer- 
chants trachng  with  western  luirope  by  way  of  the  Baltic 
sought    to    promote    friendly    relations    with    die    dukes 


53 


of   the   west,    who   had    it    in   their   power   to   promote 
or  obstruct  their  trade ;  but  the  merchants  dealing  with 
Asia,  and  those  who  connected  with  Constantinople  had 
other   interests  to  consider  and  to  guard.     Thus  there 
were  often  three  parties,  each  concerned  with  its  own 
interests,  and   forgetting  that  their  prosperity  was  first 
and  chiefly  dependent  upon  the  power  of  the  republic, 
they   rendered   it   an  easy  prey   for  an  ambitious  duke. 
The  people,  however,  boasted  of  their  patriotism,  and 
during   the   early    period   they   were    strong   enough   to 
defy  the  duke.     On  some  occasions,  he  and  his  drujina 
were  expelled,  or,  as  they  expressed  it,  "  the  people  made 
him  a  reverence,  and  showed  him  a  way  to  leave."    Some- 
times, too,  it  happened  that  the  duke  was  made  a  prisoner, 
and  confined  in  the  Archbishop's  palace.     When  Sviato- 
polk  was  (irand  Dtike  of  Kief   (1093-1113),  he  wished 
to  force  one  of  his  sons  upon  the  people  of  Novgorod. 
'•Send   him   along,"   said   they,   "if  he   has   a  head  to 
spare !  "     Usually  the  duke  was  glad  to  leave  Novgorod, 
if  he  could  secure  another  dukedom.     In  1132,  Vsevolod 
Gabriel   left   Novgorod  to  become  Duke  of   Pereiaslaf, 
hoping  to  succeed  as  Grand  Duke  of  Kief.     Seeing  no 
way  to  attain  the  coveted  dignity,  he  signified  his  wish  to 
return  to  the  people  of  Novgorod.    ''  You  have  forgotten 
your   oath    to   die    with    us,"    they   replied;   'Sou   have 
sought  another  dukedom;  now  you  may  go  where  you 
please.     In  this  case,  however,  the  people  changed  their 
mind,  and  did  take  him  back ;  but  four  years  afterwards 
they  expelled  him,  declaring  that  "  he  took  no  care  of  the 
poor  people ;  he  desired  to  establish  himself  at  Pereiaslaf ; 
at  the  battle  of  Mount  Idanof  against  the  men  of  Souz- 
Sto.  of  Russia — 4 


54 

(lal,  he  and  his  drujina  were  the  first  to  leave  the  battle- 
field :  he  was  fickle  in  the  (jnarrels  of  the  dukes,  some- 
times joining  one  parly  and  sometimes  the  other." 

So  long  as  the  descendants  of  Rurik  remained  satisfied 
with  dieir  position,  Novgorod  hid  enough  men  and 
resources  to  maintain  its  independence ;  but  more  than 
that  was  required  after  the  dukes  had  tasted  of  the 
sweets  of  unlimited  j)ower. 

George  Dolgorouki  had  established  colonies  in  Souzdal. 
The  land  was  his,  the  colonists  were  his  subjects.  He 
was  no  longer  merely  the  defender,  he  was  the  owner,  not 
the  duke,  but  the  prince.  There  was  no  vetche  or 
popular  assembly  in  his  possessions.  His  son,  Andrew 
Bogolioubski,  was  brought  up  and  educated  amid  these 
conditions,  more  in  conformity  with  those  prevailing  in 
Greece  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  where  the  people  were 
supposed  to  exist  for  the  sole  benefit  of  their  prince.  It 
was  he  who  ruined  Kief,  and  the  fall  of  that  city  fore- 
told the  doom  of  Novgorod.  "  The  fall  of  Kief,"  says 
a  Russian  author,  ^  "  seemed  to  foreshadow  the  loss  of 
Novgorod  liberty  ;  it  was  the  same  army,  and  it  was  the 
same  prince  who  commanded  it.  But  die  people  <^f 
Kief,  accustomed  to  change  their  masters, — to  sacrifice 
the  vanquished  to  the  victors, —  only  fought  for  the  honor 
of  their  dukes,  while  those  of  Novgorod  were  to  shed 
their  blood  for  the  defense  of  the  laws  and  institutions 
established  by  their  ancestors." 

During  his  father's  life,  Andrew  left  his  castle  on  the 
Dnieper,  and  moved  northward  to  \'ladimir  which  town 
he  enlarged,   and   where  he   founded   a   quarter   named 

1  Karamsin. 


\ 


55 

Bogolioul)ovo,  whence  his  nan.e  of  Bogolioubski.    After 
the  death  of  G«orge  Dolgorouki,  Andrew  first  made  a 
successful  campaign  against  the  Bulgarians,  and  then, 
after  sacking  Kief,  he  turned  his  attention  toward  Nov- 
gorod, where  he  had  established  one  of  his  nephews.    The 
cause  of  the  quarrel  is  not  known,  but  Andrew  began  by 
compelling  the  neighboring  dukes  to  join  him,  and  over- 
ran the  territory  of  the  republic  with  fire  and  sword.    The 
people  of  Novgorod,  remembering  the  fate  of  Kief,  were 
prepared  to  die  in  the  defense  of  the  city.     The  siege 
commcnce.1.    One  day  the  .\rchbishop  took  the  c.kon-- 
image— of   the    \irgin,    which   was   carried   around   m 
solemn  procession.     It  was  struck  by  an  arrow  shot  by 
a   Souzdalian   soldier,   when   miraculous   tears   appeared 
upon  its  face.     The  besiegers  were  struck  by  a  panic, 
and  the  i.eople  of  Novgorod  sallied  out,  killed  a  number 
of  the  enemv,  and  took  so  many  prisoners  that  "  you 
could  get  six  Souzdalians  for  a  grivna."    Whatever  may 
have  been  the  value  of  that  coin,  the  market  was  evidently 
overstocked  with  Souzdalians. 

Foiled  in  this  attemi^t,  Andrew  tried  other  means.  He 
prohibite.1  the  sale  of  grain  to  the  people  of  Novgorod, 
who  were  thereby  compelled  to  make  peace.  They  did 
not  surrender  any  of  their  privileges  but  accepted  as 
their  duke  the  prince  selected  by  Andrew. 

Mis  next  war  was  with  Mstislaf  the  Brave,  Duke  of 
Smolensk,  who,  ai<led  by  his  brothers,  had  taken  Kief. 
Andrew  sent  a  herald  to  him  demanding  the  evacuation 
of  Kief,  and  imposing  a  fine  upon  each  brother.  Mstislaf 
who,  the  Russians  say,  •  feared  none  but  God,"  gave 
orders  to  have  the  herald's  head  and  beard  shaved —a 


56 


gross  insult  at  that  time, — and  then  dismissed  him. 
saying :  **  ( io  and  repeat  these  words  unto  your  master, — 
*  Up  to  this  time  we  have  respected  you  like  a  father,  but 
since  you  do  not  blush  to  treat  us  as  your  vassals  and 
common  people,  since  you  have  forgotten  that  you  speak 
to  princes,  we  laugh  at  your  threats.  Execute  them ! — 
we  appeal  to  the  judgment  of  (iod.'  "  The  challenge  was 
accepted,  and  Andrew  was  defeated. 

The  Duke  of  Souzdal  did  not  relax  in  his  attempts  to 
established  absolute  government.  It  was  with  this  pur- 
pose in  view  that  he  expelled  his  three  brothers,  and  made 
friends  of  the  priests.  Kief  was  still  the  residence  of  the 
Metropolitan  or  head  of  the  ( ireek  Cliurch  in  Russia, 
and  Andrew  was  anxious  that  he  should  transfer  his 
residence  to  Madimir  so  as  to  make  that  city  the  religious 
center  of  Russia.  Mis  wish  was  not  gratified,  lie  failed 
in  everything,  except  in  making  enemies  by  his  disregard 
of  law.  He  was  murdered  in  1174  in  his  favorite  palace 
at  Bogolioubovo,  by  his  own  hoyards  or  nobles. 


VI— TROUBLOUS  THIES 


I'^HE  death  of  Andrew  was  a  welcome  relief  for  the 
people  of  Xovgorod.  They  celebrated  it  by  attack- 
ing the  houses  of  the  rich,  and  committed  so  many 
excesses  that  the  ])riests  made  a  procession  with  the 
eikons.  In  Souzdal  there  was  trouble  about  the  succes- 
sion. Two  of  Andrew's  brothers  returned  from  exile,  and 
claimed  the  dukedom,  and  the  city  of  Madimir  gave 
them  its  support.  That  was  enough  for  Souzdal  and 
Rostof  to  recognize  another  claimant,  one  of  Andrew's 
nephews.  X'ladimir  was  victorious  in  the  contest,  and 
Andrew's  brother,  Michael,  became  Grand  Duke  of  Souz- 
dal. He  died  two  years  afterwards,  and  the  people  of 
Souzdal  once  more  refused  to  recognize  Vladimir's  candi- 
date, Andrew's  other  brother  Wsevolod,  surnamed  the 
liig  Xest  on  account  of  his  numerous  family.  Vladimir 
defeated  Souzdal  and  V\sevolod  was  its  grand  duke 
from  1176  to  121 2.  The  people  of  Novgorod  thought 
best  to  pacify  him.  They  sent  a  deputation  to  X'iadimir, 
to  tell  \'sevolod,  "  Lord  and  Grand  Duke,  our  countrv  is 
your  patrimony ;  we  entreat  you  to  send  us  the  grandson 
of  (ieorge  Dolgorouki,  the  great-grandson  of  Mono- 
machus,  to  govern  us."  The  request  was  granted,  and 
Vsevolod's   eldest  son   Constantine   came   to   Xovgorod. 

57 


58 


The  ^rand  duke,  however,  was  soon  displeased  with 
him  and  displaced  him  by  a  yonnj^er  son,  laroslaf.  Soon 
there  were  quarrels  between  him  and  the  jx'ople,  where- 
upon laroslaf  moved  to  Torjok,  a  town  within  Novgorod 
territory,  and  from  there  stopped  all  supplies.  Famine 
appeared  in  the  city,  and  at  last  envoys  were  sent  to  the 
duke,  who  had  them  arrested.  Xothin^  except  absolute 
submission  would  satisfy  him.  In  this  dire  need  help 
came  from  an  unexpected  quarter.  Alstislaf  the  liold, 
son  of  Mstislaf  the  Brave,  Duke  of  Smolensk,  heard 
of  Novgorod's  plif^ht  and  sent  word  to  the  city,  *'  Torjok 
shall  not  hold  itself  higher  than  Xovgorod.  1  will  deliver 
your  lands  and  citizens,  or  leave  my  lK)nes  among  you." 
He  was  as  good  as  his  word.  There  was  a  great  war 
between  Souzdal  and  Smolensk  ;  no  (piarter  was  asked  or 
given.  In  1216,  \  sevolod's  sons  were  attacked  at  Lipetsk 
by  the  troops  of  Xovgorod  and  Smolensk,  with  such  fury 
that  they  were  routed,  and  9,000  were  killed  whereas 
only  60  were  taken  prisoners,  laroslaf  renounced  Nov- 
gorod and  released  the  citizens  arrested  by  him. 

Constantine  succeeded  his  father  X'sevolod,  but  died 
in  1 217,  and  another  brother,  (ieorge,  became  Grand  Duke 
of  Souzdal.  This  prince  made  an  expedition  down  the 
Volga,  levying  tribute  as  he  proceeded.  In  1220,  he  laid 
the  foundation  of  Nishni  Xovgorod,  and  of  several 
villages  in  what  was  then  Mordvian  territory. 

Meanwhile  Mstislaf  the  I'old  resigned  as  drand  Duke 
of    Novgorod    in    an    assembly    of    the    ])eople,    saying, 

I  salute  St.  So|)hia,  the  tomb  of  my  father,  ^  and  you. 
People  of   Novgorod,   I  am  going  to  reconquer  (^alitch 

1  Mstislaf  the  Brave  was  buried  in  the  church  nf  St.  Sophia. 


a 


I 


59 

from  the  strangers,  but  I  shall  never  forget  you.  I  hope 
I  may  lie  by  the  tomb  of  my  father  in  St.  Sophia."  The 
people  implored  him  to  remain ;  but  he  had  made  up  his 
mind,  and  in  1218  he  left  for  the  southwest,  where  he 
did  succeed  in  concjuering  Galitch,  that  is  the  name  given 
to  southwestern  Russia  at  that  time. 

After  his  departure  the  people  of  Xovgorod  called  his 
nephew  Sviatoslaf  as  their  grand  duke,  but  soon  there 
was  a  quarrel.  The  possadnik  Tferdislaf  caused  the 
arrest  of  one  of  the  wealthy  citizens,  whose  friends  rose 
to  set  him  free.  Then  the  burgomaster's  friends  came 
and  there  was  a  fight  in  which  ten  men  were  killed.  The 
grand  duke  then  demanded  the  dismissal  of  the  burgo- 
master, and  the  vetche  assembled  to  hear  both  sides.  The 
errand  duke  was  asked  what  crime  the  possadnik  had 
committed. 

''  None,"  he  replied,  "  but  it  is  my  will  that  he  be  dis- 
missed." 

The  burgomaster  then  said :  "  I  am  satisfied,  because 
I  am  not  accused  of  any  fault ;  as  for  you,  my  brothers, 
\ou  can  dismiss  alike  jiossadniks  and  dukes." 

The  vetche  consulted,  and  announced  its  decision: 
"  Prince,  since  you  do  not  accuse  the  possadnik  of  any 
fault,    remember    that    you    have    sworn    to    depose    no 
magistrate    without    trial.      Tferdislaf    will    remain    our 
possadnik, — we  will  not  deliver  him  to  you." 

Sviatoslaf  was  very  much  displeased  and  resigned, 
and  one  of  his  brothers,  \'sevolod,  was  appointed  in  his 
place.  This  was  in  1219;  two  years  later,  in  1221, 
\\sevolod  was  expelled,  and  the  i)eo])le  called  back  that 
same   laroslaf   from    whom   thev   had   been   rescued   by 


i 


6o 


6i 


Mstislaf  the  Bold.  Soon  there  was  another  dispute  and 
he  was  sent  about  his  business.  X'sevolod  of  Smolensk 
was  again  made  (hike,  but  the  people  soon  grew  tired  of 
him.  At  this  time  the  Grand  Duke  of  Souzdal  inter- 
fered ;  he  made  Novgorod  pay  him  tribute,  and  appointed 
a  prince  of  Tchernigof  as  its  duke ;  Init  he  did  not  like 
the  place  and  resigned.  Then  the  city  suflFered  from  a 
famine,  when  42.000  citizens  i^erished  and  a  hre  destroyed 
a  whole  quarter  of  the  city.  laroslaf  was  made  duke  for 
the  fourth  time  ;  the  spirit  of  the  people  was  broken,  and 
he  was  permitted  to  rule  over  them  as  he  pleased.  He 
succeeded  as  grand  duke  in  1236,  when  he  left  his  son 
Alexander  Xevski  as  duke  in   Novgorod. 

The  east  coast  of  the  Baltic  was  considered  tributary  to 
Xoveorod.      Several    colonies   had   been    established   on 
the  Diina  and  south  of  that  river,  but  in  the  12th  and  13th 
centuries    missionaries    and    merchants    from    ( lermany 
appeared  and  gradually  penetrated  as  far  as  the   Diina 
where  Bishop  Meinhard,  in  1187,  built  a  Roman  Catholic 
Church  and  a  fortress.     The  Livonians  were  converted 
much  as  St.  Madimir  had  made  Christians  of  the  people 
of  Kief;  but  in  this  case,  the  people  of  Livonia  revolted  ; 
in   1 198  the  second  bishop  was  killed  in  Ixittle,  and  the 
natives  returned  to  the  heathen  gods.     Pope  Innocent  III 
ordered  a    crusade  against  them.     Another  bishop  sailed 
up  the  Diina  with  a  fleet  of  twenty-tlnee  ships,  and  in 
1200  founded  Riga.     The  year  after  a  religious  society, 
the    Sword-bearers,    resembling   the   Templars,    was    in- 
stalled in  Livonia,  and  the  natives  appealed  to  the  Duke 
of  Polotsk  for  help.    They  marched  ui)()n  Riga  and  were 
defeated  in   1206. 


i 


German  colonization  proceeded  actively  under  the 
Sword-bearers.  Several  cities  were  founded,  and  the 
country  was  divided  into  fiefs,  according  to  the  feudal 
system  of  Western  Europe.  The  towns  were  modeled 
after  Hamburg.  Bremen,  and  Liibeck.  Riga  grew  into 
a  large  and  powerful  city. 

In  1225,  another  religious  brotherhood,  the  Teutonic 
Order,  entered  into  Lithuania,  and  twelve  years  later 
the  two  orders  united.  The  introduction  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion  carried  with  it  the  elements  of  Roman 
civilization,  and  did  much  toward  estranging  the  natives 
of  the  lialtic  provinces  from  the  Russians  of  the  east. 

Southwestern  Russia,  or  Galitch,  had,  more  than  any 
other  section,   preserved  the  old   Slav   character.   "  The 
duke  was  a  j^rince  of  the  old  Slavonic  type.     He  was 
elected  by  a  popular  assembly,  and  kept  his  seat  by  its 
consent."  '      The  assembly  was  composed  of  boyards  or 
nobles,  and  sometimes  disputes  occurred  between   them 
and  the  duke,  which  ended  in  more  or  less  serious  dis- 
orders.     In    1 188,   the   position   was  offered  to   Roman, 
Duke  of   X'olhynia.     He  accepted,  but  before  he  could 
enter  the  capital,  a  duke  who  had  been  expelled  was  re- 
installed.    After  his  death,  Roman  entered  the  territory 
of  (ialitch,  not  as  an  elected  duke,  but  as  a  conqueror  at 
the  head  of  an  army,  and  treated  the  dukedom  as  a  con- 
quest.    He  was  especially  cruel  to  the  boyards,  treating 
their  rights  and  i)rivileges  with  scorn.     Russian  authors 
praise  him  ;  one  of  them  says  that  he  "  walked  in  the  ways 
of  God,  exterminated  the  heathen,  flung  himself  like  a 
lion  upon  the  infidels,  icas  saz'uge  as  a  z^nld  cat,  deadly  as 

*  Kostomarof .  * 


62 


a  crocodile,  swooped  down  on  his  prey  like  an  ea^le," 
which  seem  strange  (juahties  for  praise.  Roman  died  in 
battle,  in  1205.  Mstislaf  the  liold  conquered  CiaHtch 
and  at  his  death,  in  1228,  his  son-in-law  Daniel  became 

duke. 

We  have  seen  that,  in  the   13th  c-   tury,  Russia  was 

divided  into  a  number  of  small  states,  most  of  them  under 

a  duke,  but  all  possessin,c:  some  dej^ree  of  hberty,  except 

in   the  north    where   the   duke   was  beinp:   chan<;ed   into 

an  hereditary  monarch.     We  have  also  seen  that  Russia 

was  part  of  Europe,  and  that  commercial  relations  were 

maintained.     At  the  same  time,  just  as  there  had  been  an 

invisible  but  none  the  less  real  dividing;  line  between  the 

Eastern  Roman,  or  Ryzantine,  Empire  and  the  west  of 

Europe,  so  with  the  adoption  of  the  (ireek  Church,  Russia 

inherited  the  oriental  type  and  principles  which  separated 

that  form  of  Christianity  from  that  of  Rome.     Thus  the 

slii^ht   split  grew   gradually   into  a   schism,   as   Western 

Europe  progressed  with  every  evolution  of  the  Roman 

Church,  whereas  Russia  remained  stationary. 

Byzantium  or  Constantinople,  situated  at  the  eastern- 
most edge  of  Europe,  owing  to  its  intimate  association 
with  the  Persians  who,  at  the  time  represented  the 
Oriental  character,  w^as  more  of  an  oriental  than  a  west- 
ern city  ;  its  sympathies  were  also  with  its  neighbors  of 
the  east.  There  was  thus  an  oriental  tendency  in  Russia 
as  well  as  in  the  l»yzantine  Empire,  and  this  vague  senti- 
ment enabled  Russia  to  bend  before  a  blast,  which  would 
have  withered  any  nation  of  a  more  pronounced  occidental 
character. 


VIT— THE  YELLOW  PERIL 


OX  the  borders  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  in  the  north- 
east of  Asia,  roamed  a  Mongol  tribe,  known  as  the 
Tartars  or  Tatars.  A  Chinese  author  of  that  time, 
described  them  as  follows  :  "  The  Ta-tzis  ^  or  Das  occupy 
themselves  exclusively  with  their  flocks  ;  they  go  wander- 
ing ceaselessly  from  pasture  to  pasture,  from  river  to 
river.  They  are  ignorant  of  the  nature  of  a  town  or  a 
wall.  They  are  ignorant  of  writing  and  books;  their 
treaties  are  concluded  orally,  brom  infancy  they  are 
accustomed  to  ride,  to  aim  their  arrows  at  rats  and 
birds,  and  thus  acquire  the  courage  essential  to  their 
life  of  wars  and  destruction.  They  have  neither  religious 
ceremonies  nor  judicial  institutions.  b>om  the  prince 
to  the  lowest  among  the  people,  all  are  fed  by  the  tlesh  of 
the  animals  whose  skin  they  use  for  clothing.  The  strong- 
est among  them  have  the  largest  and  fattest  morsels  at 
feasts ;  the  old  men  are  put  off  with  the  fragments  that 
are  left.  They  respect  nothing  but  strength  and  courage ; 
age  and  weakness  are  condemned." 

The  people  were,  therefore,  nomads,  moving  their 
flocks  as  necessity  required,  and  occasionally  making 
a  raid  upon  a  neighboring  town.  *'  They  move  on  horse- 
back ;  "  says  the  Chinese  author ;  "  when  they  wish  to 

'  Ta,  great ;  hence  :  the  Great  Tzis. 
63 


64 


65 


capture  a  town,  they  fall  on  the  suhiirhan  villages.  Each 
leader  seizes  ten  men,  and  every  prisoner  is  forced  to 
carry  a  certain  quantity  of  wood,  stones,  and  other 
material.  They  use  these  for  tillini^  uj)  moats  or  to  d\fj^ 
trenches.  In  the  capture  of  a  town  the  loss  of  a  myriad 
men  was  thous^ht  nothinj^:.  Xo  ])lace  could  resist  them. 
After  a  sici^e,  the  entire  i^opulation  was  massacred,  with- 
out distinction  of  old  or  young-,  rich  or  poor,  heautiful 
or  uq:lv,  those  who  resisted  or  those  who  viclded ;  no 
distinguished  j)erson  escaped  death,  if  a  defense  was 
attempted." 

These  nomad  Tartars  were  united  hy  and  under 
Genghis  Khan  (  1 154-1227 ),  one  of  their  chiefs  or  khans. 
He  summoned  all  the  khans  of  the  several  trihes,  and 
he  fore  them  took  the  title  of  emperor  over  all,  declaring 
that,  as  there  was  only  one  sun  in  heaven,  so  there  should 
he  hut  one  emperor  on  earth.  At  the  head  of  his  trihes, 
Genghis  conquered  Manchuria  and  Xorth  China;  then 
he  moved  west.  He  himself  remained  in  Asia,  hut  two  of 
his  lieutenants  proceeded  in  that  direction,  suhduing  the 
trihes  on  their  way,  and  often  joined  hy  them.  The 
long  march  had  rendered  the  Tartars  inured  to  hardshij) 
and  wholly  indifferent  to  danger.  At  last  they  passed  hy 
the  southern  shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and,  crossing  the 
Caucasus,  commenced  the  invasion  of  Europe. 

The  march  of  such  a  host  could  not  he  kept  secret. 
When  the  Polovtsi,  the  old  enemies  of  Russia,  heard  of 
the  approach,  they  sent  for  help  to  the  Christian  dukes. 
"  When  they  have  taken  our  country,  they  will  take 
yours,"  they  said.  Mstislaf  the  Bold  of  Cialitch,  urged 
that   die   assistance   he    <rranted,    and    the   chief   of    the 


Polovtsi  agreed  to  enter  the  (ireek  Church.     The  Rus- 
sians assembled  on  the  lower  Dnieper,  where  they  were 
approached  hy  some  Tatar  envoys  who  told  them  that 
they  had  "come  hy  (iod's  command  against  our  slaves 
and  grooms,  the  accursed  Polovtsi.     I'e  at  peace  with  us; 
we  have  no  (juarrel  with  you."    The  envoys  were  arrested 
and  put  to  death.     The  Russian  army  then  moved  east- 
ward, and  met  the  Tartar  host  at  the  Kalka,  a  small  river 
rumiing  into  die  Sea  of  Azof.     Instead  of  waiting  for 
the  troops  still  on  the   way,   Mstislaf  the    P.old  and  his 
friends  began  die  battle.     While  it  was  at  its  height,  the 
Polovtsi  were  seized  by  a  panic  and,  falling  back,  threw 
the    Russians    into    disorder.      The    Russian    army    was 
routed;   six   dukes  and   seventy  high  boyards   were  left 
dead  on  the  battlefield,  and  hardly  a  tenth  of  the  army 
escaped.      The    (irand    Duke    of    Kief    still    occupied    a 
fortified   cam])   on   the    Kalka.      The   Tartars  offered   to 
allow  him  and  his  drujina  to  retire  upon  payment  of  a 
ransom.     He  accepted,  and  was  attacked  by  the  Tartars 
after  he  had  left  his  fortifications.     He  and  his  two  sons 
were  stifled  under  boards,  and  his  guard  was  massacred. 

The  Tartars  at  this  time  needed  all  their  men  to  com- 
plete the  conquest  of  China,  and  therefore  the  armies 
invading  luirope  were  recalled,  after  southern  Russia 
was  at  dieir  mercy.  The  Russians  did  not  inquire  into 
the  cause  of  this  relief,  but  resumed  their  old  life,  con- 
fident that  all  danger  was  past. 

When  the  Tartars  had  made  themselves  masters  of 
China,  P.ati.  a  nephew  of  (lenghis,  was  dispatched  west- 
ward to  mark  further  conquests.  He  did  not  follow  the 
same  route   but   passed   south  of   the   Ural    Mountains. 


k 


66 


67 


Thirteen  years  after  the  battle  of  the  Kalka,  Bati  besieged 

and  took  the  capital  of  the   liulgars,  east  of  the  grand 

dukedom  of  Souzdal  (  1237).     As  soon  as  the  dukes  of 

Central  Russia  heard  this,  they  united  against  the  Tartars, 

but  the  Grand  Duke  of  Souzdal   refused  to  join  them. 

The  Tartars  sent  envoys  to  the  allied  dukes.     "  If  you 

want  peace,"  they  said,  '*  give  us  the  tenth  of  your  goods." 

"  When  we  are  dead,"  was  the  proud  reply,  '*  you  can 

have   the   whole.      A    battle   was    fought    in    which    the 

Russians  were  crushed.     Nearly  all  the  dukes  died  on 

the  battlefield  ;  Riazan  was  stormed,  sacked,  and  burned, 

and  the  other  towns  of  that  dukedom  met  the  same  fate. 

It  was  now  the  turn  of  Souzdal.     The  army  of  the 

grand    duke   was   defeated   on    the    Oka;    Moscow    was 

burned  and  \'ladimir  besieged.     After  an  heroic  defense, 

the  Tartars  took  the  city  by  assault,  and  many  Russians 

were  burned   in   the   cathedral   which   was   set   on    fire. 

Leaving  ruin  in  their  wake,  the  Tartars  went  in  search  of 

the  grand   duke   who  had  taken   a  position  on   the   Sit, 

near   the   frontiers  of   Novgorod.      Here  another   battle 

was   fought  ending  in   disaster   for  the   Russians.     The 

headless  corpse  of  the  grand  duke   was   found  by   the 

Bishop  of  Rostof.     On  swept  the  Asiatic  hoards,  as  if 

nothing  would  stop  them.     At  Torjok,  "  Russian  heads 

fell  beneath  the  sword  of  the  Tartars  as  grass  beneath 

the  scythe."     Leaving  Souzdal  behind,  they  entered  the 

territory  of  Novgorod ;  but  the  dense  forests  and  swollen 

rivers  delayed  them,  and  when  within  fifty  miles  of  the 

citv,  thev  turned  southeast.     The  little  town  of  Kozelsk  * 

did   not   surrender   but   inflicted   such    a   loss   upon   the 

^  Where  Kalouga  now  stands. 


invaders  that  they  mentioned  it  as  "  the  wicked  city.'' 
When  it  was  cai)ture(l,  every  man,  woman,  and  child, 
was  butchered. 

The  years  1239  and  1240  were  spent  in  ravaging 
southern  Russia.  Pereiaslaf  and  Tchernigof,  after  a 
desperate  defense,  were  burned,  and  the  Tartars  under 
command  of  (lenghis's  grandson  Mangou,  marched  upon 
Kief.  Mangou  oflfered  terms,  but  Kief,  knowing  the 
fate  of  other  cities,  executed  Mangou's  envoys.  The 
grand  duke  and  his  rival,  Daniel  of  (ialitch,  fled  from 
the  city,  but  the  people  fought  for  their  lives.  iMangou 
was  reen forced  by  Bati's  army  and  the  siege  began.  The 
walls  were  knocked  to  i)ieces  by  battering  rams.  "  The 
people  of  Kief,  led  by  the  brave  Dmitri,  a  Gallician 
boyard,  defended  the  battered  ramparts  till  the  end  of 
the  dav,  and  then  retreated  to  the  Church  of  the  Dime, 
which  they  surrounded  by  a  palisade.  The  last  defenders 
of  Kief  were  grouped  round  the  tomb  of  laroslaf.  The 
next  day  they  perished.  Mangou  gave  the  boyard  his 
life,  but  the  Mother  of  Russian  Cities  was  sacked.  This 
third  pillage  was  the  most  terrible  ;  even  the  tombs  were 
nnt  respected.  All  that  remains  of  the  Church  of  the 
Dune  is  only  a  few  fragments  of  mosaic  in  the  museum  at 
Kief.  Saint  Sophia  and  the  Monastery  of  the  Catacombs 
were  delivered  up  to  be  plundered."  Kief  fell  in  1240. 

There  remained  only  \olhynia  and  Gallicia,  which  also 
bowed  under  the  Tartar  yoke.  With  the  exception  of 
Novgorod  and  the  northwest,  Russia  was  in  possession 
of  the  Yellow  race.  The  Russian  dukes  who  had  escaped 
carried  the  tale  to  Western  Europe  which  was  soon  in  a 
state  of  alarm.     The  Emperor  of  Germany  wrote  to  the 


68 


69 


other  monarchs:  "  This  is  the  moment  to  open  the 
eyes  of  body  and  soul,  now  that  die  brave  princes  on 
whom  we  depended  are  dead  or  in  slavery."  The  Pope 
called  upon  the  Christian  princes  to  take  up  arms. 
Meanwhile  Uati  continued  his  westward  march  and  pene- 
trated as  far  as  Moravia,  when  he  was  recalled  by  the 
death  of  the  second  Tartar  emperor.  He  withdrew  to 
Russia  and  on  the  X'ol^a  built  a  city  which  he  named 
Sarai— the  Castle —which  became  the  capital  of  a  Tartar 
empire  extendincr  from  the  I'ral  river  and  Caspian  Sea 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Danube,  and  is  known  as  the  Golden 

Horde. 

The  first  three  successors  of  (leni^his  Khan  are  known 
as  the  Great  Khans,  and  ruled  over  all  the  Tartars :  but 
after  Kublai  Khan  established  himself  in  China,  in  i2Cyo, 
the  Golden  Horde  declared  its  independence.  So  lon^ 
as  Bati  lived,  this  khanate  was  united  and  powerful,  but 
after  his  death,  in  1257,  it  orradually  lost  stren-th.  In 
1272,  these  Tartars  became  Mahomedans  and  spread  that 
faith.  The  Golden  Horde  enjoyed  another  period  of 
prosperity  under  the  Khan  Uzbcck. 

How  did  the  Russians  bear  this  blow?  We  have  seen 
that  laroslaf,  the  duke  who  had  been  expelled  so  many 
times  from  Novc^orod,  became  Grand  Duke  of  Souzdal. 
He  found  the  country  in  Souzdal  in  ruins.  Nothing  was 
left  of  the  towns  and  villai^es  but  charred  remains ;  the 
inhabitants  who  had  survived  the  Tartar  massacres  had 
fled  into  the  forests.  laroslaf's  first  work  was  to  induce 
them  to  return  and  rebuild  their  homes.  The  Tartar 
general  Bati  heard  of  this  and  sent  word  to  Taroslaf  to 
come  to  him.     The  grand  duke  dared  not  refuse.     He 


■%f.' 


•i^'. 


went  to  Sarai  on  the  \^olga  where  Bati  told  him  that  he 
might  continue  as  grand  duke,  but  that  it  would  be  best 
for  him  to  pay  a  visit  to  the  great  khan,  who  was  then 
un  the  A  moor  in  the  far  eastern  part  of  Asia.  laroslaf 
agreed  ;  he  started  on  his  long  journey,  and  after  many 
months  of  travel  through  deserts  and  wastes,  he  arrived 
.It  the  head(juarters  of  the  Tartars.  There  he  was  com- 
pelled to  kneel  before  Oktai,  the  successor  of  Genghis. 
It  appears  that  some  Russian  boyards  had  preceded 
laroslaf  hoping  to  secure  favors  from  the  khan,  and 
that  they  accused  the  grand  duke,  but  Oktai  refused  to 
listen  to  them.  After  some  delay  laroslaf  was  confirmed 
as  grand  duke,  and  ]:>ermiUed  to  return,  but  he  died 
from  exhaustion  in  the  desert,  in  1246.  His  remains 
were  brought  to  X'ladimir. 

laroslaf  left  two  sons,  Andrew,  who  succeeded  him 
in  Souzdal,  and  Alexander  who  was  duke  at  Novgorod. 
This  younger  son  was  an  able  as  well  as  a  brave  man. 
On  one  (Kcasion,  when  the  Scandinavians  had  invaded 
Novgorod's  territory  aided  by  the  Catholic  Orders,  Alex- 
ander had  gained  a  great  victory  on  the  Neva,  from  which 
he  is  known  in  history  as  Alexander  Nevski  (1240). 
Cpon  his  return  to  Novgorod  he  had  a  dispute  with  the 
vetche,  and  he  left  the  city.  After  his  departure  the 
territory  of  the  Republic  was  invaded  by  the  German 
Sword-bearers  who  erected  a  fort  on  the  Neva,  captured 
Pskof,  Novgorod's  ally,  and  plundered  merchants  within 
a  short  distance  of  the  walls.  The  i)eople  sent  to  Alex- 
ander Nevski,  begging  him  to  come  to  their  rescue,  and 
after  several  refusals  he  consented.  Alexander  collected 
an  army,  drove  the  (iermans  out  of  Pskof  and  their  new^ 
Sto.  of  Russia — 5 


70 


fort,  and  at  last  defeated  them  on  the  ice  of  Lake  Peipus 
in  1242.  This  is  known  as  the  liattle  on  the  lee.  Alex- 
ander then  returned  to  Novgorod  where  he  was  received 
with  honor  and  joy. 

Andrew,    the    Grand    Duke    of    Souzdal,    Alexander's 
brother,  refused  to  recognize  liati's  authority,  whereupon 
a  Tartar  army  ravaged  his  territory  for  the  second  time. 
Novgorod,   as   we   have   seen,   had   escaped   the   Tartar 
invasion,  but  when  Alexander   Xevski  received  a  letter 
from  Bati,  in  which  the  khan  said,  '*  God  has  subjected 
many  peoples  to  me,  will  you  alone  refuse  to  recognize 
my  power?     If  you   wish  to  keep  your  land,  come  to 
me  ;  you  will  see  the  splendor  and  the  glory  of  my  govern- 
ment."    The   duke  thought   it  prudent  to   comply.     He 
and  his  brother  Andrew   went  to  Sarai,  where  honors 
were  showered  upon  the  hero  of  the   Xeva.     The  two 
brothers  were  directed  to  visit  the  great  khan,  as  their 
father  laroslaf  had  done.    They  did  so;  and  the  Mongol 
emperor  confirmed  Andrew  as  Duke  of  Souzdal,  but  to 
Alexander's  dukedom,  he  added  Kief  and  South  Russia. 
They  returned  from  the  Far  East  in  1257. 


•.4-  * 


VIII-RUSSIA  UNDER  THE  MONGOL  YOKE 

THE  Tartars  did  not  interfere  with  tlie  people,  their 
institutions,  or  rcH^ion,  but  they  denian<led  tribute 
in  the  form  of  an  annual  poll-tax.    Officers  called  baskaks 
went  from  house  to  house  to  collect  it,  either  in  money 
or  in  furs,  and  those  who  couUl  not  pay  were  sold  as 
slaves      Sometimes  this  collection  caused  disturbances. 
It  was  some  time  before  the  people  of  Novgorod  would 
submit      When  Bati  sent  his  collectors  to  the  Republic, 
the  ciuestion  was  brouRht  before  the  vetche  where  the 
possa.lnik  urged  the  wisdom  of  paying  the  tax    but  the 
people  would  not  hear  of  it  and  promptly  murdered  the 
unfortunate  burgomaster.      .Alexander,   too.   advised   to 
avoid  trouble,  but  the  people  refused  and  several  boyards, 
including  Alexander's  .son  X'assili  urged  resistance.    The 
.hike  acted   vigorously.     He  ordered  the  arrest  of  h.s 
son  and  had  the  boyards  punished ;  but  it  was  not  before 
the 'people  heanl  of  the  approach  of  a  Tartar  army,  that 
they  submitted.     Still   such   was  their   resentment  that 
Mexander  ha<l  the  baskaks  guarded  night  and  day.     At 
last   \lexander  threatened  to  leave  Novgorod  with  h.s 
drujina;  then  the  people  oflfered  no  further  opposition 
to  the  collection  of  the  hate.l  poll-tax    (.260).     Two 
years  later  the  people  of  Souzdal.  \ladimir.  an<l  Rostof 

71 


72 


77^ 


rose  against  the  baskaks  and  killed  one  of  them,  a  Russian 
who  had  become  a  Mahomedan.  Alexander,  who  had 
succeeded  his  brother  Andrew  as  Grand  Duke,  decided 
to  attempt  to  appease  the  khan  by  going  himself  to 
Sarai  with  presents ;  he  also  wished  to  be  excused  from 
furnishing  a  body  of  Russians  to  serve  in  the  Tartar  army. 
He  succeeded,  but  was  kept  at  the  court  of  the  khan 
for  a  year.  His  health  broke  down  and  he  died  on  his 
return  journey  in  1263.  The  news  of  his  death  was 
brought  to  Xovgorod.  as  mass  was  being  said  in  the 
cathedral.  The  Metn  politan  who  was  reading  the  service, 
interrupted  it,  and  said,  **  Learn,  my  dear  children,  that 
the  Sun  of  Russia  has  set,— is  dead."  and  the  people  cried, 
"  We  are  lost."  The  death  of  Alexander  Xevski  was  a 
heavy  blow  to  Russia. 

The  Russians,  that  is  the  people  of  Russia  whose  story 
we  are  reading,  did  not  mingle  with  any  Tartar  except 
the  tax  collector  whom  they  did  not  like.  The  victors 
were  nomads,  who  did  not  care  to  occupy  the  land  they 
had  conquered.  When  they  did  settle  at  Sarai  on  the 
Lower  X'olga,  they  absorbed  the  tribes  who  had  lived 
there  before  the  invasion,  and  who  were  not  Russians, 
but  nomads.  The  Russian  people  did  not  associate  with 
the  conquerors.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  word  Kres- 
fianine  or  "  true  Christian  "  was  applied  to  the  peasant, 
instead  of  the  contemptuous  term  moujik. 

Whatever  Asiatic  characteristics  were  grafted  upon 
the  Russians,  came  to  them  through  their  kniazes  and 
boyards.  The  dukes  soon  showed  that  all  ilk  x  uued  for, 
was  to  hold  their  positions.  After  Alexander  Xevski, 
there  is  not  a  single  instance  of  a  desire  to  relieve  the 


lis 


people;  and  the  victors  on  their  part  never  interfered  so 
long  as  the  tribute  was  paid  regularly.  The  descendants 
(^f  Andrew  liogolioubski  were  not  disturbed  in  Souzdal : 
those  of  Roman  continued  to  hold  (ialitch  and  Volhvnia. 
and  (  )leg's  house  remained  in  possession  of  Tchernigof. 
The  dukes  might  fight  about  Kief:  Xovgorod  might 
appoint  or  expel  its  dukes, — the  Tartars  did  not  mind. 
r»ut  the  khan  did  insist  that  the  dukes  should  visit  him 
and  pay  him  homage.  He  also  reserved  the  right  of 
approving  the  succession  of  a  duke,  who  was  compelled 
to  apply  for  a  written  consent,  called  an  iarlikh.  On  one 
occasion  when  the  people  of  Xovgorod  elected  Duke 
Michael,  they  afterwards  refused  to  recognize  him, 
asserting  that  **  it  is  true  we  have  chosen  Michael,  but 
on  condition  that  he  should  show  us  the  iarlikh." 

The  dukes,  holding  their  possessions  by  favor  of  the 
khan,  tried  to  gain  his  good-will  and  favor,  (deb,  duke 
of  P)ielozersk  married  in  the  khan's  family  about  1272; 
Feodor  of  Riazan  was  the  son-in-law  of  the  khan  of  the 
Nogais.  In  13 18.  the  (Irand  Duke  (leorge  married  Kon- 
tchaka,  sister  of  the  Khan  I'zbeck.  It  was  the  rulers, 
and  not  the  people  of  Russia,  that  quietly  submitted  to 
the  lartartchina  or  Mongol  yoke. 

The  khans,  while  they  did  not  care  about  the  people 
took  care  that  the  dukes  should  show  them  slavish  respect. 
In  1303.  the  dukes  were  convoked,  and  when  they  were 
assembled  a  letter  from  the  khan  was  read,  in  which 
they  were  commanded  to  stop  fighting  because  the  great 
khan  desired  to  see  peace  established.  Whenever  such 
a  letter  was  brought,  the  dukes  were  directed  to  meet  the 
envoys  on  foot,  prostrate  themselves,  spread  fine  carpets 


74 

under  their  feet,  present  them  with  a  cup  filled  with  ^old 
pieces,  and  listen,  kneeling,  while  the  letter  was  read. 

Children  of  the  prairie  and  the  desert,  the  Tartars  had 
neither  a  religion  nor  a  civilization  to  impose  upon  the 
Russian  people.  fhe  khans  were  tolerant  hecause  thev 
did  not  care.  Koiyuk  had  a  Christian  chapel  near  his 
residence.  In  1261,  the  Khan  of  Sarai  gave  ])ermission 
for  the  erection  of  a  (ireek  church  in  his  capital,  and  he 
allowed  a  hishop  to  reside  there.  Mangou  gave  equal 
privileges  to  Christians,  Jews,  and  Mahomedans. 

The  dukes  and  hoyards,  paying  court  to  the  Tartars, 
gradually  adopted  their  mode  of  dressing  and,  as  they 
became  Asiatic  in  appearance,  they  came  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Asiatic  thought.  They  dressed  in  a  long  caftan 
or  flowing  robe,  wore  a  sort  of  turhan  on  the  head, 
swords  and  daggers  in  their  belts,  and  when  on  horseback, 
sat  in  very  high  saddles  with  short  stirrui)s.  Dukes  and 
boyards  thus  became  semi- Asiatic,  and  drifted  awav  from 
the  people  among  whom  the  national  i)rinciple  was  kept 
alive. 

Every  succeeding  visit  to  the  khan  served  to  increase 
the  intimacy  of  the  dukes  and  their  Asiatic  masters.  It 
was  not  many  years  before  the  relation  with  the  great 
khan  was  severed,  but  that  with  the  Golden  florde  was 
kept  alive.  A  writer  ^  living  at  that  time,  who  visited 
Sarai  during  Bati's  life,  gives  the  following  description: 
**  It  (the  court)  is  crowded  and  brilliant.  Tlis  army 
consists  of  600,000  men,  150,000  of  whom  are  Tartars, 
and  450,000  strangers.  Christians  as  wxdl  as  infidels.  On 
Good  Friday  we  were  conducted  to  his  tent,  between  two 

^  Planus  Corpinius. 


^Pi- 


i 


^'■^ 


75 


fires,  because  the  Tartars  believe  that  a  fire  purifies 
everything,  and  robs  even  poison  of  its  danger.  JVe 
had  to  make  ;;/(/;/y  proslrations,  and  enter  the  tent  with- 
out touching  the  threshold.  Uati  was  on  his  throne  with 
one  of  his  wives ;  his  brothers,  his  children,  and  the  Tartar 
lords  were  seated  on  benches ;  the  rest  of  the  assembly 
were  on  the  ground,  the  men  on  the  right,  the  women  on 
the  left.  .  .  .  The  khan  and  the  lords  of  the  court  emi)tied 
from  time  to  time  cu])s  of  gold  and  silver,  while  the  musi- 
cians made  the  air  ring  with  their  melodies,  liati  has  a 
bright  comi)lexion  ;  he  is  aft'able  with  his  men,  but  inspires 
general  terror.  '  **  The  same  writer  visited  the  court  of 
the  great  khan,  and  in  his  description  dwells  upon  the 
fact  that  it  was  not  the  1\artars  who  were  most  terrible, 
but  the  Russian  dukes  and  nobles  who  accused  one 
another  and  who  sought  to  destroy  their  own  country- 
men by  bribing  the  favorites.  It  was  thus  that  Duke 
Michael  of  Tchernigof  was  murdered  in  1246,  and  Duke 
Michael  of  Tver  in  13 19,  by  a  Russian  hireling  of  the 
Cirand  Duke  of  Moscow  who  was  present  when  the  foul 
(Kh'(1  was  committed.  Servile  submission  to  the  khans, 
a  haughty  demeanor  towards  their  own  people,  became 
the  characteristics  of  the  dukes.  *'  The  dukes  of  Mos- 
cow," says  a  Russian  author,  ^  "  took  the  humble  title  of 
servants  of  the  khan,  and  it  was  by  this  means  that  they 
became  powerful  monarchs."  An  luiglish  writer-  comes 
to  the  following  evident  conclusion:  "The  first  czars  of 
Muscovy  u  ere  the  i)olitical  descendants,  not  of  the 
Russian  dukes,  but  of  the  Tartar  khans." 

A  gradual  change  came  over  the  Golden  Horde  after 

^  Karamsin.         ^  Wallace. 


76 


// 


the  Tartars  departed  from  their  nomadic  h'fe  and  settled 
in  and  about  Sarai.     They  lost  their  warlike  habits,  and 
with  them  much  of  their  vigor.     They  began  to  farm  out 
the  poll-tax,  that  is.  they  sold  the  right  to  collect  the  tax- 
to  merchants  of  Khiva,  whose  oppression  was  so  great 
that  the  people  of  Souzdal  revolted  in   1262,  Koursk  in 
1284,    Kolomna   in    13 18,   and    Tver    in    1327.      lint   the 
opi)ression    was    greater    when    the    dukes    of    Moscow 
farmed  this  tax,  not  only  from  their  own  subjects,  but 
also  from  neighboring  dukedoms.     They  were  absolutely 
pitiless  in  collecting  from  the  \n,or  i)eople  as  much  as 
they  could  extort,  and  this  was  the  disgraceful  foundation 
of  their  wealth  and  power.     The  poll-tax,  thereafter,  was 
always  a  favorite  source  of  revenue  in  Russia. 

P.esides    this    tribute,    the    dukes    were    compelled    to 
furnish  soldiers  to  their  masters.    Soon  after  the  ccnKjuest, 
we  read  of  Russian  dukes  marching  with  the  Tartars  at 
the  head  of  their  drujinas,  and  of  supplying  them  with 
infantry.     In   1276  lioris  of  Rostof  and  others,  followed 
Mangou  Khan  in  the  war  against  the  tribes  of  the  Cau- 
casus,   and    helped    to   sack    the    town    of    Dediakof    in 
Daghestan.     This  was  excusable,  because  the  enemv  was 
an  alien;  but  what  can  be  thought  of   Prince  Andrew, 
the  unworthy  son  of  Alexander  Nevski,   who,  in    1281, 
induced  the  Tartars  to  aid  him   in   pillaging   X'ladimir, 
Souzdal,   ^[our()m,   ^^oscow,  and   Pereiaslaf,  and  led  in 
profaning  churches  and  convents?     In    1284,   when  two 
descendants  of  Qleg  were  dukes  of  Koursk.  one  of  th(Mn 
put  his  brother  to  death  for  having  insulted  the  khan,  and 
Russian    historians    blame    not    the    murderer,    but    the 
victim,  because  he   had  aroused   the   khan's  anger!     In 


1327,  the  dukes  of  Moscow  and  Souzdal  marched  against 
Tver  at  the  command  of  their  Asiatic  master.  Such  was 
the  influence  of  the  Tartar  yoke. 

The  Russian  dukes  and  their  nobles  lost  not  onlv  the 
principle  of  patriotism,  but  also  that  of  personal  honor. 
The  unfortunate  Russians  henceforth  were  to  them,  not 
fellow-countrymen  but  *'  tchcrnc  "  "  black  people."  The 
khans,  with  true  political  instinct  looking  to  the  perpetua- 
tion of  this  condition,  gained  the  friendship  of  the  Church, 
as  they  had  that  of  the  dukes.  In  1313,  the  Khan  Uzbeck, 
at  the  request  of  the  Metropolitan  or  head  of  the  Church 
of  Moscow,  ordered  that  the  Church  should  retain  its 
l)rivileges,  and  that  it  should  not  be  deprived  of  its 
property,  because,  he  says,  *'  these  possessions  are  sacred, 
as  they  belong  to  men  whose  prayers  preserve  our  lives 
and  strengthen  (mr  armies."  The  churches  and  convents 
grew  enormously  rich.  They  received  gifts  of  land,  and 
the  priests,  so  bribed,  allied  themselves  with  the  heathen 
masters,  and  aided  further  in  oppressing  the  people. 

The  descendants  of  the  dukes  and  drujinas  lost  the 
large  and  generous  impulses  of  the  old  X(jrsemen,  to 
make  way  for  the  Asiatic  deformities  of  treachery,  cruelty, 
cunning,  and  disregard  of  honor.  Whatever  came  in 
the  wav  of  their  own  interests,  was  trampled  under  foot 
by  fair  means  or  foul.  The  boyards,  too,  were  tainted 
by  the  example  of  the  chiefs.  The  vast  extent  of  the 
country,  the  sparsity  of  the  ])opulati()n,  the  difficulties 
in  the  way  of  communication,  and  above  all  the  general 
ignorance,  i)revente(l  the  appearance  of  a  patriot  who 
might  have  raised  a  truly  national  banner,  and  shaken 
off  the  voke  of  the  servile  lackevs  of  the  Tartars. 


IX— LITHUANIA  AND  MOSCOW 

W^  I'-  have  seen  that  the  Tartar  invasion  stopped  short 
'  »  of  Novgorod,  and  turned  southeast,  thus  leaving 
northwest  Russia  free.  What  are  now  known  as  the 
lialtic  Provinces,  was  at  that  time  covered  with  dense 
forests,  inhahited  hv  the  h'inns  or  Suonii,  the  Tchouds, 
Jniouds,  and  Lithuanians,  all  of  the  same  race  and  speak- 
ing the  same  language,  hut  constantly  at  war  with  one 
another.  In  the  13th  century  a  chief  named  Mindvog, 
after  killing  his  brothers  and  sons,  united  the  tribes,  and 
made  himself  master  of  Lithuania.  He  then  invaded 
Russia  whose  dukes,  sutYering  under  the  Tartar  yoke, 
were  unable  to  withstand  him.  He  captured  Grodno  and 
Novogredek,  when  he  was  confronted  by  Alexander 
Nevskv  and  Daniel  of  \'olhvnia  in  front,  and  bv  the 
Knights  of  Livonia  in  his  rear.  In  this  extremity  Mind- 
vog sent  to  the  Pope  piomising  that  he  would  be  con- 
verted in  return  for  his  good  services.  Pope  Innocent 
I\^  replied  by  sending  a  papal  legate  to  Grodno,  where 
Mindvog  and  his  wife  were  baptized,  and  he  was  made 
King  of  Lithuania  (  1252).  Soon  after  he  had  a  dispute 
with  the  Livonian  Knights  to  whom  he  was  forced  to 
cede  the  country  of  the  Jmouds.  He  again  became  a 
pagan  and,  marching  against  the  Knights,  defeated  them. 

79 


> 
o 

') 


IX— LITHr.\XT.\  AXn  MOSCOW 

'XT  ^  I'',  have  seen  that  llie  Tarlar  invasion  st<)|)])e(l  sliort 
»  *  of  X(^\'i^oro(l,  and  tnrned  southeast,  thus  leavin<^ 
northwest  Russia  free.  W  liat  are  now  known  as  the 
llahic  Provinces,  was  at  that  lime  covered  with  dense 
forests,  inhahited  l)y  tlie  I'inns  or  Suouii,  the  Tchouds, 
Jniouds.  and  Lithuanians,  ah  of  the  same  race  and  si)eak- 
\\v^  the  same  lani^uai^e,  hut  constantly  at  war  with  one 
an<»ther.  In  tlie  i^^th  century  a  chii'f  named  Mindvo^-. 
alter  kilHn^  his  hrothers  and  sons,  united  tlie  tri])es,  and 
made  himself  master  of  Lithuania.  lie  then  invaded 
Russia  whose  dukes,  sutVeriui;  under  the  Tartar  yoke, 
were  unahle  to  withstand  him.  lie  captured  (irodno  and 
Xovoi^redek.  when  he  was  confronted  hv  Alexander 
Xevsky  and  Daniel  of  \01hynia  in  front,  and  hv  the 
Kni«4"hts  t)f  Lixonia  in  his  rear.  In  this  extremity  Mind- 
vo<:^  sent  to  the  Lope  promisin^^"  that  he  would  he  con- 
verted in  return  for  his  j^ood  services.  Lope  Innocent 
\\  replied  by  sendintj;-  a  i)ai)al  legate  to  (  injdno,  where 
Mindvoj^  and  his  wife  were  l)a])tized.  and  he  was  made 
Kiui^  of  Lithuania  (  125J).  Soon  after  he  had  a  disj)ute 
with  the  Livoiiian  Knii^hts  to  whom  he  was  forced  to 
cede  the  country  of  the  Jmouds.  lie  ai^ain  became  a 
pagan  and.  marching  against  the  Knights,  defeated  tlieni. 

79 


8o 


Upon  his  return  from  this  expedition,  he  was  murdered 
by  a  chief  named  Dovmont  whom  he  had  injured. 
Lithuania  a^^ain  fell  into  anarchy  until  another  enterpris- 
ing^ chief  named  ( iedimin  restored  order  in   i  ^15. 

(ieiHnn'n  invaded  Russia,  defeated  a  Kusso-Tartar 
army  in  1321,  and  took  Tcherni-of  and  \'ladinnr.  He 
then  went  south,  where  the  Russian  cities  readilv  opened 
their  ^ates  to  him.  hopincr  for  relief  from  the'  Mon-oj 
yoke.  He  took  the  old  capital  Kief,  and  there  had  his 
sons  baptized  in  the  (^reek  church  and  tried  to  marry 
them  into  the  families  of  Russian  dukes.  He  established 
his  capital  at  Wilna  where  he  attracted  many  (German 
artists  and  mechanics  by  -ranting  them  special  privile^-es. 
He  died  a  pa^^an,  in  1340,  dividing  his  country  amon.i,^ 
his  sons  and  his  brother. 

One  of  his  sons,  ( )l-erd,  succeeded  in  ^ettin-  possession 
of  the  whole,  and  then  started  upon  a  career  of  con(|uest. 
He  first  attacked  Novgorod,  where  one  of  his  brothers 
had  taken  refu^-e,  and  made  concjuests  east  and  south, 
until  he  reached  the  Black  Sea.  Althou-h  he  was  a 
pa.o^an,  Simeon  the  Proud,  (irand  Duke  of  Moscow,  <rave 
him  his  dau-hter;  btit  this  did  not  prevent  Ol-erd' from 
waging  war  with  Simeon's  successors.  In  1368.  he  de- 
feated the  Tartars  of  the  Lower  Dneiper,  and  destroved 
Cherson  in  the  Crimea. 

When  he  died  he  followed  Gedimin's  example  by  divid- 
ing his  territories  among  his  sons,  but  one  of  them, 
Jagellon,  became  sole  ruler  by  putting  his  brothers  to 
flight  and  his  uncle  to  death.  At  this  time  the  Russian 
language  was  adopted  and  with  it  the  (ireek  Church, 
although  Jagellon  was  still  a  pagan.     When  he  married' 


81 


Hedwiga,  the  heiress  to  the  Kingdom  of  Poland,  he 
embraced  the  Roman  Catholic  church;  in  1386,  he  went 
to  Cracow,  where  he  was  crowned  King  c^f  Poland,  and 
soon  after  gave  orders  that  his  people  must  join  the  same 
eluirch,  converting  them  as  Xdadimir  had  intro- 
duced Christianity  among  the  people  of  Kief.  Jagellon 
made  Cracow  his  capital.  Some  time  afterwards  one  of 
his  cousins,  V'itovt.  raised  a  revolt  against  him  in  Lithu- 
ania, and  Jagellon  was  compelled  to  cede  that  territory  to 
him.     Thus  \'itovt  became  Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania. 

V'itovt  married  the  sister  of  Vassili,  (^rand  Duke  of 
Moscow,  and  extended  his  domain  toward  the  east.  He 
invaded  Smolensk,  whose  (irand  Duke  Sviatoslaf,  when 
fighting  in  Russia,  had  taken  a  delight  in  impaling  and 
burning  alive  Prussian  women  and  children.  That  savage 
had  been  killed  in  1387,  in  a  battle  with  the  Lithuanians, 
and  his  son  had  succeeded  him.  \'itovt,  before  Smolensk, 
invited  this  prince  and  his  brothers  to  visit  him  in  his 
tent.  They  accejned  and  were  warmly  received,  but 
when  they  were  ready  to  depart,  they  were  told  that  they 
were  prisoners  of  war.  Smolensk  was  taken  by  surprise, 
and  pillaged. 

Vitovt  contemplated  the  conquest  of  Russia.  His  terri- 
tory bordered  in  the  east  on  Souzdal  and  Riazan.  He 
had  defeated  an  army  of  Tartars  in  the  south,  and  was 
making  preparations  for  a  bold  ^tmke.  Collectino-  an 
army  of  Lithuanians,  Poles,  Russians,  and  five  hundred 
Knights  of  the  Teutonic  ( )rder,  he  set  out  from  Kief  and 
came  upon  the  Tartar  army  near  Pultowa  where,  in  1399. 
he  suflFered  a  serious  defeat.  He  recovered  from  this 
blow,  and  after  some  time  began  a  war  with  the  Teutonic 


82 


Order  which  he  defeated  in  1410,  at  the  battle  of  the 
Tannenberg.  He  thereupon  re-annexed  the  Jnioud 
country. 

X'itovt   had   given    up   liis   designs    upon    Russia:   he 
planned  to  raise  Lithuania  into  a  kingdom,  and  to  have 
a  MetropoHtan  of  its  own,   instead  of  being  dependent 
upon  the  head  of  the  Greek  Church  at  ]\Ioscow.     He 
succeeded  in  the  last-named  object.  I>ut  met  with  a  check 
in  the  former,  and.  as  he  was  eighty  years  old,  the  dis- 
appointment caused  an   illness   from   which   he   died,   in 
1430.     After  his  death,  Lithuania  had  no  more  influence 
upon   Russia.     Sometimes   it  had   a   grand   duke  of   its 
own,  at  other  times  it  was  united  with  Poland.     In  1501, 
it  became  the  property  of  the  King  of  Poland,  who  added 
to  his  title  that  of  Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania.     Its  nobles 
spoke  the  l\)Iish  language. 

It  was  necessary  to  sketch  in  a  few  words  the  history 
of  Lithuania,  not  only  because  it  is  part  of  Russia  to-dav, 
but  because  it  has  always  been  claimed  by  Russia.     The 
history  of  that   country,   however,    from   the   beginning 
of  the  14th  century,  is  centered  about  Muscovia,  the  terrP- 
tory  of  the  Grand  Duke  of  Moscow.     At  the  time  of  the 
Lithuanian  conquest,  Muscovia  was  bounded  on  the  north 
by  Tver,  on  the  east  by  Souzdal,  on  the  south  bv  Riazan, 
and  on  the  west  by  Lithuania.     It  belonged  to  Alexander 
Nevski,  who  at  his  death  left  it  to  his  son  Daniel.     Its 
area  was  increased  by  him  by  the  towns  of   Pereiaslaf, 
Zabiesski  and  Kolomma.     Daniel  died  in   130^,  and  was 
buried  in  the  church  of  St.  Michael  the  Archangel,  which 
remained  the  burial  place  of  the  Muscovite  princes  until 
the  time  of  Peter  the  Great. 


83 

The  next  grand  duke  was  Daniel's  son  George,  whose 
first  act  was  to  capture  the  Duke  of  Smolensk  fron'i  whom 
he  took  the  town  of  Mojaisk.     In   1304  the  Grand  Duke 
of  Souzdal  died.    Alichael  of  Tver  claimed  the  succession 
as  the  eldest  of  the  family,  but  George  of  Moscow  con- 
tested   it.      Michael    was    supported   by   the   boyards   of 
Madimir  and  the  people  of  Novgorod ;  the  khan  at  Sarai' 
also  declared   in  his   favor,  and   Michael   was   installed. 
George,  however,  was  not  satisfied  and  began  a  war; 
he  was  defeated  in  battle,  and  twice  besieged  in  .Moscow.' 
Suddenly  he  heard  that  the  khan  was  dead  ;  he  hastened 
to  Sarai,  and  thea^  made  friends   with  the  new   Khan 
Uzbeck,  who  gave  him  his  sister  Kontchaka  in  marriage, 
and  ordered  that  George  should  have  possession  of  Souz- 
dal.    He  returned  to  Moscow  with  a  Tartar  army  and 
Michael,  considering  the  odds,  proposed  to  cede  Vladimir 
on  condition  that  his  own  patrimony  of  Tver  should  re- 
main   intact.      George   refused,   and   the   war  broke  out 
anew.     Michael  defeated  him  and  captured   Kontchaka 
and  the  Tartar  general,  but  he  released  his  prisoners,  and 
the  dispute  was  again  brought  before  the  khan.     George 
took  good  care  to  be  at  Saraf,  and  having  ample  means 
at  his  disposal   from  his  poll-tax  collecting,  distributed 
bribes  right  and  left.     Michael,  confident  in  the  justice 
of  his  cause,  committed  the  mistake  of  sending  his  twelve- 
\ear-ol(I   son    in   charge   of  high   boyards,   to   represent 
him;  but  when  he  was  informed  of  George's  methods,  he, 
too.  proceeded  to  Sarai,  after  making  his  will.     Upon 
his  arrival,  he  was  accused  of  having  drawn  his  sword 
upon  the   Khan's  envoy,  and  of  having  poisoned  Kon- 
tchaka.    Uzbeck  would  not  even  listen  to  such  absurd 


84 

complaints,  but  George  invented  other  falsehoods,  and  at 
last  Michael  was  arrested.  The  khan  went  on  a  hunting 
trip  in  the  Caucasus,  and  the  wretched  Duke  of  Tver 
was  dragged  after  him  in  chains.  ( )ne  day  he  was  put 
in  the  pillory  in  the  market  of  a  i)opulous  town,  where 
the  people  crowded  around  him  to  look  at  the  man  who, 
a  short  time  before,  was  a  powerful  i)rince  in  his  own 
country.  Michael's  boyards  urged  him  to  esca])e,  but 
he  dreaded  the  khan's  vengeance  uj)on  his  family  and 
people.  George  increased  his  bribes,  and  thus  secured 
the  order  that  Michael  should  be  put  to  death. 

One  of  iMichael's  pages  came  to  the  tent  occupied  by 
him,  and  told  him  that  George  and  a  Tartar  general  were 
approaching.  "  I  know  what  their  object  is,"  said  the 
unfortunate  duke.  He  at  once  sent  his  young  son  to 
one  of  the  khan's  wives,  who  had  promised  to  protect 
the  child.  The  two  men  came  to  the  tent  and  ordered 
the  Tver  boyards  to  leave.  Hired  assassins  were  called 
m,  and  a  Russian  ruffian  named  Rc^nanetz  stabbed  the 
unfortunate  duke.  When  ( ieorge  and  the  Tartar  entered, 
they  saw  the  nude  corpse;  it  had  been  despoiled.  The 
Tartar  was  shocked.  "  What !  "  he  cried,  "Will  you  allow 
the  body  of  your  uncle  to  be  outraged !  "  George  only 
smiled ;  but  one  of  his  attendants  threw  a  cloak  over  the 
murdered  man. 

When  Michael's  children  grew  up,  one  of  his  sons, 
Dmitri  of  the  Terrible  Eyes,  secured  some  friends  at 
the  khan's  court.  He  obtained  the  title  of  grand  duke, 
and  a  baskak  received  orders  to  install  him.  When 
George  heard  this,  he  hurried  to  Sarai;  there  the  two 
men    met.    and    Dmitri,    drawing   his    sword,    killed   his 


iSi 


fS 


85 

father's  murderer  (  1325).  Dmitri  was  arrested  and  put 
to  death  by  order  of  the  khan,  but  his  brother  Alexander 
was  ])ermitted  to  succeed  him  at  Tver. 

This  duke  was  in  sympathy  with  the  people.     Suffer- 
ing under  the  oppression  of  the  Tartar  tax  collectors,  the 
people  revolted  under  the  leadershij)  of  Alexander.     The 
palace  of  the  baskak  was  attacked,  and  he  and  his  attend- 
ants   were    killed.      Uzl)eck,    incited    by    Ivan    Kalita, 
(^jeorge's  brother  and  successor  at  Moscow,  prepared  to 
take   revenge,   when   Ivan   volunteered   to   punish   Tver, 
as  well  as  Riazan  and  Novgorod  which  had  given  evidence 
of  sympathy.     The  ofi"er  was  accepted,  and  Ivan  at  the 
head  of  a  Muscovite  army  reenforced  by  50.000  Tartars 
marched    upon    the    doomed    city.      Alexander    and    his 
brothers  fled.   Tver  and  two  other  cities  were  sacked,  the 
Duke  of  Riazan  was  put  to  death,  and  Novgorod  had  to 
pay  a  heavy  fine.     Ivan  thought  that  his  services  would 
procure  him  Tver  and  Riazan,  but  Tzbeck  did  not  intend 
to  extend  the  power  of  the  treacherous  family,  and  Con- 
stantine,   another   son   of   Michael,    was   made   Duke   of 
Tver.     He  and  Ivan  went  to  Sarai,  where  the  latter  was 
ordered    to    bring    Alexander    before    the    khan.     The 
prince   had    found   an   asylum    in    Pskof,   where   Ivan's 
messengers    appeared    to    demand    his    surrender.      The 
envoys   urged   hini   to   give   himself   up   under   the  plea 
*'  not  to  expose  a  Christian  peo])le  to  the  wrath  of  the 
infidels."    The  people  of  Pskof  thought  otherwise.    ''  Do 
not  go  to  the  Horde,  my  lord,"  said  they  ;  "  whatever  hap- 
pens, we  will  die  with  you."     Alexander  refused  to  obey 
the  summons,  and  the  people  of  Pskof  began  to  construct 
a  new  fort.    Ivan  Kalita,  the  Grand  Duke  of  Moscow,  per- 
Sto.  ok  Ri'ssiA— 6 


86 


'4  »*<■-■• 


suaded  the  Metropolitan  to  place  Alexander  and  Pskof 
under  the  ban  of  the  Church,  which  was  done,  W'c  see 
here  a  Christian  prince  persecuting^  a  relative,  and  a 
Christian  priest  exconiniunicatin^  a  Christian  people, — 
all  to  please  an  infidel  concpieror!  Still  the  people  of 
Pskof  refused  to  yield,  but  Alexander  left  the  city  and 
took  refug-e  in  Lithuania.  Then  T^skof  informed  Ivan  of 
his  departure,  sayin^^:,  **  Alexander  is  gone ;  all  Pskof 
swears  it,  from  the  smallest  to  the  greatest,  popes,^ 
monks,  nuns,  orphans,  women,  and  children."  (1329.) 

Some  years  afterwards  an  attempt  was  made  by  Alex- 
ander to  recover  Tver.  He  went  to  Sarai  with  some  of 
his  boyards.  There  he  made  submission.  '*  Lord,  all- 
powerful  Czar,"  he  said,  "if  [  have  done  anything 
against  you,  I  have  come  hither  to  receive  of  you  life 
or  death.  Do  as  (lod  inspires  you ;  I  am  ready  for 
either."  Uzbeck  pardoned  him  and  Alexander  returned 
to  Tver.  This  did  not  please  Ivan  Kalita,  who  knew  that 
he  was  hated  everywhere,  and  that  his  enemies  only  need- 
ed a  leader.  He  went  to  Sarai  where  he  told  Czbeck  that 
Alexander  was  a  very  dangerous  enemy  to  the  Tartars. 
Alexander  was  summoned  to  api)ear  and  when  he  com- 
plied, he  was  arrested,  condemned  to  death,  and  beheaded. 

^  Priests. 


0. 


••iLCk-' 


X— DFXLIXE    OF    THE    TARTAR    POWER. 

DAHTRI  DONSKOI 

CRAFTY  and  unscrupulous,  the  grand  dukes  of 
Moscow  were  feared  by  their  neighbors.  Ivan 
Kalita,  as  farmer  of  the  poll-tax,  grew^  immensely 
wealthy.  He  collected  a  double  tax  from  Novgorod, 
which  the  republic,  although  allied  w'ith  Lithuania,  dared 
not  refuse.  He  bought  several  towns,  besides  land  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Vladimir,  Rostof,  and  Kostroma.  His 
title  was  still  (irand  Duke  of  X'ladimir,  but  Moscow  was 
the  real  capital.  Ivan  took  very  good  care  to  stand 
well  with  the  Church.  He  built  convents  and  churches, 
and  never  went  out  without  an  alms-bag  or  kalita  to  give 
money  to  the  poor ;  hence  his  surname.  The  seat  of  the 
Metropolitan  was  still  at  Vladimir,  but  he  often  came  to 
Moscow,  and  finally  moved  there;  so  that  it  became  also 
the  capital  of  the  Church.  It  is  reported  that  the  Metro- 
politan said  to  Ivan,  "  God  will  bless  you  and  raise  you 
above  all  other  dukes,  and  this  city  above  all  other  cities. 
Your  house  will  reign  in  this  place  during  many  cen- 
turies ;  their  hands  will  conquer  all  their  enemies ;  the 
saints  will  make  their  dwelling  here.  nn(\  here  my  bones 
shall  rest." 

When  Ivan  with  the  Alms-bag  died  in  1341,  he  left  the 

87 


88 


bulk  of  his  possessions  to  his  ehlest  son  Simeon,  and  gave 
only  small  estates  to  his  other  children  ;  he  also  forbade 
that  Moscow's  territory  should  be  divided.  His  body 
was  scarcely  in  the  grave  before  the  dukes  of  Tver  and 
Souzdal  were  on  the  way  to  Sarai  to  claim  the  grand 
dukedom  of  \ladimir;  they  were  supported  by  other 
dukes  who  disliked  and  dreaded  the  Muscovite  familv. 
Simeon  hurried  after  them,  well  provided  with  some  of 
his  father's  treasure.  He  used  it  so  well,  that  he  received 
the  iarlikh.  and  was  installed  at  Madimir.  Servile 
toward  the  khan,  he  was  overbearing  toward  the  other 
Russian  dukes,  which  ])rocure(l  for  him  the  surname  of 
the  Proud.  He  was  the  first  to  assume  the  title  of  Grand 
Duke  of  all  the  Russias ;  and,  acting  in  that  capacity,  he 
graciously  confirmed  the  charter  of  Xovgorod,  for  which 
he  demanded  and  obtained  payment.  Simeon  died  in 
1353  of  the  '•  black  death,"  a  pestilence  which  was 
imported  from  Asia. 

Great  changes  were  taking  place  at  Sarai,  in  the  Khan 
of  the  Golden  Horde.  Its  power  was  broken  by  internal 
discord,  when  Mourout.  the  legal  heir  of  Rati,  was 
attacked  by  a  rival  Mamai,  who  succeeded  in  establishing 
himself  at  Sarai.  Simeon  was  succeeded  by  his  brother, 
Ivan  n,  an  easy-going,  good-natured  man  whose  reign 
of  six  years  did  not  increase  the  influence  of  Moscow. 
At  his  death,  in  1359,  he  left  several  minor  children,  the 
oldest  of  whom  was  Dmitri,  a  boy  of  twelve.  Dmitri  of 
Souzdal  went  to  Sarai — and  secured  the  iarlikh,  which 
made  him  (irand  Duke  of  X'ladimir,  but  Alexis,  the 
Metropolitan,  was  loyal  to  Ivan's  children,  and  appealed 
to  the  khan  in  the  name  of  his  yotmg  ward.     Mourout, 


(89) 


Dmitri  Donskoi 


<S8 


bulk  of  his  possessions  to  his  cMest  son  S 


inicon,  and  j^ave 


only  small  estates  to  his  other  ehildren  :  he  also  forbade 
that  Moseow's  territory  should  be  divided.  His  body 
was  scareely  in  the  grave  before  the  dukes  of  Tv(^r  .and 
Sou/.dal   were  on   the  way  t(^   SaraT  to  claim  tlu-  i^rand 

ere    su])ported    1)\-    other 


w 


dukedom    of    \ladimir:    the\ 
dukes   who  disliked  and  dreaded   the    Muscovite   family, 
imeou  hurried  after  them,  well  jjrovided  with  some  of 

e  used  it  so  well,  that  he  received 


s 


his  father's  treasiu'e.     1 1 


ervile 


the  iarlikh,  and  was  in>lalled  at  \ladimir.  < 
toward  the  khan,  he  was  overbeariuij:  toward  the  other 
Russian  dukes,  which  ])rocured  for  him  the  surname  of 
the  rroutl.     He  was  tlu>  fu-t  to  assume  the  title  of  ( irand 


Ouke  of  all  the  Russi; 


IS  ;  and.  actinij-  in 


that 


capacity,  he 


i^raciously  confirmed  the  charter  of  Xovi^orod.  for  which 
he  deman«Ie(l  and  obtained  paynunl.  Simeon  died  in 
of    the    "black    death."    a    pestilence    which    was 


K^ 


imi)orted  from  Asia, 


( ireat  chau; 


A>  w  (.  1  r  lakini^  place  ai  .^arai,  in  the  Khan 


of  the  ( iolden  H<»rde.  Its  ])ower  was  broken  by  internal 
discord,  when  Mourout.  the  leiral  hiMr  of  liati,  was 
attacked  by  a  rival  Mamai.  who  succeeded  m  establishiui^^ 
himselt  at  Sarai'.  Simeon  was  succeeded  b\  his  brother, 
Ivan  11.  an  easy-goin<^,  j^^o, „l-natured  man  whose  rcii^n 
of  six  \e.ii>  did  not  increase  the  intluence  of  Moscow. 
At  his  death,  in  I35(;.  he  left  several  minor  children,  the 
oldest  of  wlu)in  \vn<  Dinitri  i  lu.x  of  twelve.  Dmitri  of 
Souzdal    Weill   lo   >arai     and   secured   the  iarlikh.   which 


made    him    ( irand    Duke    of    \ladimir.    but    Al 


exis. 


th. 


Metro|)olitan.  was  loyal  to   Ivan's  children,  and  appealed 
to  the  khan  in  the  name  «»f  his  vounj/  ward.      Mourout. 


,-.■-  /.  ■ 


■*. 


(89) 


Dmitri  Donskoi 


90 


the  heir  of  Rati,  declared  in  his  favor,  and  yount^r  Dmitri 
was  taken  to  Madimir  escorted  bv  an  arniv,  and  installed 

The  appointment  was  disputed  hv  the  dukes  of  Tver, 
Sonzdal.  and  Riazan.  Dnntri  of  Souzdal  held  an  iarlikh 
from  Mourout's  opponent,  and  tried  to  enter  in  Madimir, 
but  was  expelled.  The  Metropolitan  excommunicated 
the  opponents  of  Ivan's  son,  who  held  the  fort  as  Grand 
Duke.  Youno-  Dmitri  made  war  upon  the  Huke  of  Tver, 
and  after  a  seven  years'  stru-gle  ( 1368-1375),  compelled 
him  to  renounce  his  claims. 

Dmitri  was  summoned  before  the  Khan,  in  1371.  He 
went  but  what  he  saw  at  Sarai  convinced  him  that  the 
Tartars  were  no  longer  able  to  uphold  their  authority. 
He  did  not  hesitate  to  en-a.i,re  in  a  struircrie  with  Riazan, 
althouc^h  it  was  supported  by  a  Tartar  army.  Thereafter, 
when  orders  arrived  from  the  khan,  Dmitri  ignored 
them.  In  1376.  he  sent  a  large  army  to  Kazan  on  the 
Volga,  and  forced  two  Mongol  chiefs  to  pay  tribute. 
Two  years  later,  in  1378,  a  battle  was  fought  between 
Dmitri  and  one  of  Mamai's  generals  in  Riazan.  when  the 
Tartars  were  defeated,  which  made  the  grand  duke 
exclaim:  "Their  time  is  come,  and  God  is  with  us!" 
The  khan  sent  an  army  to  ravage  Riazan.  and  made 
preparations  to  reestablish  his  authority  at  Moscow. 

To  make  sure  of  success,  Mamai  took  two  years  to 
collect  an  immense  army  and  to  mature  his  plans.  This 
could  not  remain  secret  to  the  Russians,  who,  aroused  by 
Dmitri,  laid  aside  their  private  feuds  to  make  common 
cause  against  the  infidels.  A  large  number  of  dukes 
assembled  at  Moscow,  and  even  the  Lithuanians  prom- 


91 


ised  to  send  troops  to  Kostroma  where  the  Russian  army 
was  gathering.  The  Metropolitan  assured  Dmitri  of  the 
victory,  and  sent  two  monks  to  go  with  the  troops.  Mak- 
ing the  sign  of  the  Cross  on  their  cowls,  he  said,  "  Behold 
a  weapon  which  faileth  never !  " 

Russia  was  united  against  the  Mongol ;  all  the  dukes, 
with  the  exception  of  those  of  Tver  and  Riazan.  lent  their 
aid.  These  two  dreaded  Moscow's  power,  and  the  Duke 
of  Riazan  tried  to  conclude  an  alliance  with  Jagellon  of 
Lithuania  and  Mamai. 

Dmitri,  at  the  head  of  an  army  estimated  at  150,000 
men.  marched  through  Riazan  to  the  Don  where  the 
Tartars  were  drawn  up.  awaiting  the  reenforcements  of 
their  ally  Jagellon.  who  was  still  fifteen  leagues  distant. 
Dmitri  resolved  to  fight  the  Tartars  before  a  junction 
could  be  effected.  He  crossed  the  Don  and  met  the 
enemy  on  the  j)lain  of  Koulikovo, — the  Field  of  the 
Woodcocks, — where  a  furious  battle  was  fought.  It 
was  decided  by  a  sudden  attack  ujion  the  Tartars  from 
an  ambush,  which  threw  them  into  a  ])anic.  The  Tartars 
were  routed;  Mamai's  camp,  his  chariots  and  camels, 
were  all  captured.  Dmitri  was  found  in  a  swoon  from 
loss  of  blood.  He  was  surnamed  Donskoi.  in  honor  of 
this  victory.  (1380.) 

It  seemed  as  if  the  end  of  the  Mongol  yoke  had  come, 
when  another  great  leader  api)eared  among  them.  Tam- 
erlane, after  coiKpiering  Bokhara,  Hindostan,  Iran,  and 
Asia  Minor,  entered  luirope,  and  ordered  Mamai  to  be 
j)Ut  to  death,  lie  summoned  Dmitri  Donskoi  to  ap])ear 
before  him,  and  received  a  curt  refusal.  Tamerlane  sent 
one  of  his  generals  with  an  immense  army  to  Moscow,  and 


92 


93 


Dmitri,  not  finding  the  former  support,  went  to  Kostroma 
to  collect  troops.  The  Tartars  ap])eare(l  before  Moscow, 
which  they  tried  to  carry  by  assault  but  failed.  They 
pretended  to  enter  into  negotiations,  when  they  sur- 
prised the  gates  and  Moscow  was  delivered  up  to  fire  and 
sword.  It  is  said  that  24,000  inhabitants  were  slaugh- 
tered.    \'la(limir  and  other  towns  suffered  the  same  fate. 

It  is  tohl  that  Dmitri  wept  when  he  saw  the  charred 
remains  of  his  capital  after  the  Tartars  had  withdrawn. 
There  was  nothing  for  it  but  to  make  peace  with  the 
khan,  and  once  more  the  Tartar  tax  gatherers  went  their 
rounds,  lint  Dmitri's  heart  was  sore  against  the  Dukes 
of  Tver  and  Riazan  who  had  abetted  Mamai,  and  Nov- 
gorod, which  had  used  the  oi)portunity  of  Moscow's  dis- 
tress to  plunder  some  of  its  towns.  After  the  country 
had  sufficiently  recovered,  he  compelled  the  Duke  of 
Riazan  to  conclude  "  a  perpetual  peace,"  and  Novgorod 
paid  an  indemnity  besides  agreeing  to  an  annual  tribute. 

When  Dmitri  died  in  1389,  he  left  Moscow  the  most 
powerful  of  Russian  dukedoms.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  eldest  son  \'assili,  with  the  consent  of  his  cousin 
Madimir,  wh.o  was  the  eldest  of  the  family.  Vassili  men 
tioned  Novgorod  as  **  his  patrimony,'*  and  acted  as  if  the 
republic  was  his  private  property.  He  visited  Sarai  in 
1392,  and  while  there  bought  an  iarlikh,  which  placed 
him  in  i)ossession  of  Souzdal,  Xishni  Novgorod,  and 
Mourom.  In  1393,  the  peo|)le  of  NovgornrI  revolted,  but 
\^assili's  army  convinced  them  that  the  repuijlic  was  fast 
losing  its  former  power. 

At  this  time  Tamerlane,  dissatisfied  with  his  generals, 
arrived  in  Europe  and  after  pillaging  the  (jolden  Horde, 


m.' 


moved  westward,  spreading  ruin  and  desolation.  He 
drew  near  to  Moscow,  where  the  famous  eikon  of  the 
\'irgin  was  taken  in  solemn  procession,  when  the  Tartar 
army  stopped  and  turned  to  the  south,  where  Azof, 
Astrakhan,  and  Sarai,  were  plundered  and  destroyed. 
(I395-)  After  Tamerlane's  withdrawal,  Vassili  pre- 
tended not  to  know  to  whom  to  ])ay  the  tribute, — and  so 
paid  none  at  all.  The  Tartars  under  Rdiger  marched 
upon  Moscow  to  collect  it,  but  the  city  was  bravely 
defended  and  I'^diger,  fearing  an  invasion  from  Asia, 
agreed  to  accept  a  ransom  of  3000  rubles,  which  was 
])aid  by  the  boyards. 

More  dangerous  were  the  attacks  of  \^itovt  of  Lith- 
uania, X'assili's  father-in-law,  who  marched  three  times 
against  Moscow,  lioth  X'itovt  and  \'assili  were  indis- 
posed to  risk  a  decisive  battle,  fearing  that,  if  defeated, 
their  enemies  would  despoil  them.  In  1408  a  treaty  was 
signed  wherel)y  the  Ouger  was  made  the  frontier  between 
them.  This  gave  Smolensk  to  Lithuania,  and  Kozelsk  to 
Moscow. 

\'assili  extended  his  territory,  and  with  it  his  name ; 
one  of  his  daughters  married  the  liy^antine  Emperor, 
John  Palaeologus.  At  his  death,  in  1425,  he  left  his 
territory  to  his  son  \  assili,  the  lUind,  whose  title  was 
contested  by  his  uncle  (leorge,  on  the  ground  of  being 
the  eldest  of  the  family.  The  dis])ute  was  submitted  to 
the  khan,  in  1431.  lioth  sides  humbled  themselves,  but 
the  argument  of  \  assili's  boyards  i)revailed.  '*  My  Lord 
Czar,"  they  said  to  the  khan,  "  let  us  speak, — us,  the 
slaves  of  the  grand  duke.  (  )ur  master,  the  grand  duke, 
prays  for  the  throne  of  the  grand  dukedom,  which  is  your 


94 


95 


property,  having  no  other  title  but  your  protection,  your 
investiture,  and  your  iarHkh.  Vou  are  master  and  can  dis- 
pose of  it  according  to  your  good  pleasure.  My  Lord,  the 
Duke  Cieorge,  his  uncle,  claims  the  grand  dukedom  by 
the  act  and  will  of  his  father,  but  not  as  a  favor  from  the 
all-powerful."  \'assili  the  Blind  was  the  first  grand 
duke  to  be  crowned  at  Moscow  instead  of  at  X'ladimir. 

His  reign  was  disturbed  by  constant  wars  with  his 
uncle,  and  afterwards  with  his  cousins.  In  1446  he  was 
taken  prisoner  by  one  of  the  latter,  who  ordered  his  eyes 
to  be  put  out.  In  1450,  peace  was  restored  when  the 
second  son  of  George  died  of  poison.  Notwithstanding 
the  loss  of  his  sight  X'assili  displayed  considerable  energy 
in  reestablishing  his  authority.  Novgorod  was  forced  to 
pay  another  indemnity,  and  to  give  a  written  promise 
that  in  future  all  deeds  would  be  void  unless  stamped 
with  the  seal  of  the  grand  duke. 

The  most  remarkable  incident  of  X'assili's  reign  was 
the  Council  at  Florence,  Italy,  in  1449.  where  delegates 
of  the  Roman  and  (ireek  Churches  tried  to  eflfect  a  union. 
There  were  seventeen  Metroi)()litans,  among  them  Isi- 
dore of  Moscow,  who  signed  the  .\ct  of  Union.  When 
Isodore  returned  and  declared  what  he  had  done,  a  great 
opposition  appeared.  \'assili  himself  insulted  the  Metro- 
politan, who  fled  to  Rome.  In  1453,  Mahomet  II  cap- 
tured Constantinople  when  a  host  of  priests,  monks, 
artists,  and  learned  men  fled  from  the  extinct  Byzantine 
Empire,  to  find  an  asylum  in  Russia. 

While  nothing  resulted  from  the  Council  of  I'lorence, 
owing  to  the  opi)osition  of  members  of  the  (ireek  Church, 
the  fall  of  Constantinople  left  a  deep  impression  upon 


■m~ 


w  ■_    -■ 


'»»J^ 


«'r?ffi^"'*- 


-.•«■',': 


"j'ii 


Russia,  which  chose  to  consider  itself  as  the  heir  to  the 
Byzantine  Empire.  More  than  this,  the  influence  of  the 
men  who  found  a  refuge  in  Russia,  served  to  inoculate 
the  country  of  their  adoption  with  the  >vmi-oriental 
civilization  which  had  distinguished  Constantino])le  from 
Western  luirope.  The  time,  too,  was  propitious.  Russia 
was  gradually  recovering  from  the  blow  of  Tartar  rule, 
which  had  marred  its  progress  during  two  centuries. 
Here  was,  therefore,  to  all  intent  and  purposes,  a  virgin 
soil,  which  promised  to  yield  a  rich  harvest  to  whatever 
princii)les  were  planted  in  it.  It  might  even  regenerate 
the  decaying  elements  of  the  Byzantine  civilization. 


r 


n 


,•:* 


I* 


(96) 


Ivan  HI 


XI— I  VAX  III,  THE  GREAT 

VASSILI'S  eldest  son  Ivan  was  born  in  1^40.  It 
is  said  tiiat  upon  the  occasion  of  his  birth,  an  old 
monk  at  Xovi^orod  had  a  vision  which  he  rej^ortcd  to  the 
Archbishop.  "  Truly."  he  said,  "  it  is  to-day  that  the 
grand  duke  triumphs ;  God  has  given  him  an  heir ;  I 
behold  this  child  making  himself  illustrious  by  glorious 
deeds.  He  will  subdue  princes  and  nations.  P.ut  woe 
to  Novgorod!  Novgorod  will  fall  at  his  feet,  and  never 
rise  again." 

Vassili,  wishing  to  avoid  the  disputes  incident  upon  the 
succession,  during  his  lifetime  admitted  Ivan  as  co- 
regent.  Upon  his  father's  death,  in  1462,  Ivan  was 
twenty-two  vears  old.  He  succeeded  without  the  usual 
disturbances,  and  the  first  six  years  of  his  reign  were 
uneventful.  In  1468,  he  gained  forcible  possession  of  his 
brother  George's  estate,  and  allowed  him  to  die  in  prison. 
When  he  heard  of  his  death,— he  wept.  Another  brother, 
Andrew,  was  in  his  way,  and  was  tlung  into  prison,  w^here- 
upon  Ivan  called  the  Metropolitan  and  bishops  to  his 
palace,  wept  some  more,  and  confessed  that  he  had  been 
too  severe ; — but  he  forgot  to  restore  Andrew's  property. 
When  his  third  brother,  Boris,  died.  Ivan  seized  the  estate 
and  kept  it ;  but  he  wept  some  more. 

97 


— *■. 


f 


'^\"XT^ 


Jf^ 


(y6) 


Ivan  III 


-  *-j» 


\I_1\  AX   III,    rill-:  C.REAT 

ATASSILI'S  eldest  son  Ivan  was  born  in  1440.  It 
i>  .said  that  npon  llic  occasictn  of  liis  birth,  an  old 
monk  at  Novgorod  bad  a  vision  which  he  reported  to  the 
Archbisboj).  *' Trnly."  he  said.  **  il  is  to-day  that  the 
^rand  dnke  trinni|)h> ;  (.<»d  has  i^iven  him  an  heir;  I 
behold  this  child  making;-  himself  ilhisirions  by  .glorious 
deeds.  He  will  snbdue  princes  and  nations.  lUu  woe 
to  Xovi^orod!   Xcn-.c^orod  will   fall  at  hi>  feet,  and  never 

rise  ajL^ain." 

X'assili,  wisbini:"  to  avoid  the  dispntes  incident  ni)on  the 
sncce.ssioii,  (hn-inL,^  his  lifetime  admitted  Ivan  as  co- 
rei;ent.  rp(»n  his  father's  death,  in  14(^2,  Ivan  wa.s 
twentv-two  \ears  old.  lie  sncceeded  withont  the  nsnal 
distnrbances,  and  the  first  six  years  of  his  reii;n  were 
uneventful.  In  i4f>S.  he  gained  forcible  i)o.vsession  of  his 
brother  ( ieo rise's  estate,  and  allowed  him  to  die  in  prison. 
When  he  heard  of  his  death.— he  wei)t.  Another  brother, 
Andrew,  was  in  his  wa\.  and  was  ihmi^-  into  i)rison,  where- 
ni)on  Ivan  called  the  Metropolitan  and  l)ishoi)s  to  his 
palace,  wept  some  more,  and  et»iiie.s>ed  that  he  had  been 
too  severe; — bnt  he  fori^ot  to  restore  Andrew's  pro])erty. 
When  his  third  brother,  I'.oris.  died.  Ivan  seized  the  estate 
and  kei)t  it;  bnt  he  wept  >ome  more. 

97 


98 

This  soft-hearted  but  tenacious  gentleman  found  fault 
with  his  neif2:hbor,  Michael  of  Tver,  for  entering  into  an 
alliance  with  Lithuania.     To  settle  the  difficulty,  he  in- 
vaded the  dukedom,  and  annexed  it  to  Moscow.     Then, 
having  his  hands  free,  he  thought  of  Novgorod.     The 
Germans  of  the  Hanseatic  League  had  formed  a  colony 
in  the  old  republic,  which  had  grown  very  wealthy.    Ivan 
looked  upon  that  wealth  as  his ;  if  it  was  not,  it  ought  to 
be.    Acting  upon  this  satisfactory  conclusion,  he  remem- 
bered that  the  people  of  Novgorod  had  omitted  to  do 
him  homage  when  he  succeeded  his  father.     Thev  had 
even  failed  to  appreciate  the  gentle  letter  of  remonstrance 
in  which  he  reminded  them  of  their  oversight.     (^lood- 
natured  as  he  knew  himself  to  be,  he  could  not  afford  to 
encourage  such  a  rebellious  spirit ;  but,  being  a  careful 
man,  he  concluded  that  it  would  be  more  humane  as  well 
as  cheaper  to  try  the  gentle  means  of  bribery.     His  gold, 
distributed  where  it  would  do  most  good,  procured  him  a 
large  party.    The  opposition  was  led  by  a  woman  named 
Marfa,  the  wealthy  widow  of  a  possadnik.     She  urged 
that  the  republic  should  ask  the  help  of  Casimir  I\',  King 
of  Poland,  but  Ivan's  friends  in  the  vetche  replied  that,  if 
Poland  should  win,  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  would 
enter,  whereas  Russia  was  at  least  loyal  to  the  Greek 
Church. 

Marfa's  influence  prevailed  ;  the  republic  submitted  to 
Poland,  on  condition  that  its  charter  should  be  respected. 
Gentle  Ivan  desi)atched  some  Envoys  to  warn  the  i)eople 
of  the  error  of  their  ways,  and  when  that  did  no  good, 
he  hired  Tartar  cavalry,  overran  the  territory  of  the  re- 
public, and  directed  his  troops  to  cut  off  the  noses  and 


,\ 


r 


h 


H 

III 

99 

lips  of  the  prisoners.  It  is  probable  that  he  wept,  although 
history  omits  mentioning  the  fact.  Novgorod  was  unpre- 
pared ;  a  mob  was  collected  and  styled  an  army,  and  in 
the  battle  of  the  Chelona,  3,000  trained  troops  put  to 
flight  30.000  citizen  soldiers.  Novgorod  was  lost.  Ivan 
kindly  permitted  the  name  "  republic  "  to  continue,  but 
his  authority  was  admitted.  He  also  received  a  share  of 
the  wealth  as  an  indemnity.  (1470.) 

Two  years  later  he  married  the  niece  and  supposed 
heiress  of  the  last  Byzantine  emperor.  Her  father, 
Thomas  Palaeologus,  had  fled  to  Rome  where  he  died 
leaving  one  daughter  Sophia.  Pope  Paul  II  wished  to 
find  her  a  husband,  and  Cardinal  Bessarion  of  the  Greek 
Church  advised  him  to  offer  her  hand  to  Ivan.  The  offer 
was  accepted  ;  Sophia  received  a  dower  from  the  Pope 
who  still  hoped  to  unite  the  two  churches,  and  the  bride 
was  received  with  great  honor  in  Ivan's  territory.  The 
grand  duke  probably  had  his  eye  on  Constantinople,  but 
deferred  his  claim  to  some  favorable  opportunity.  With 
Sophia  came  many  (ireek  nobles,  artists,  and  learned 
men.  Ivan,  as  may  be  judged  from  his  gentle  nature, 
was  a  patron  of  art.  and  had  no  prejudice  against  for- 
eigners. Several  Italians  came  to  Moscow  where  their 
services  were  appreciated. 

Ivan  left  Novgorod  in  jieace  during  five  years,  when 
he  thought  it  time  to  familiarize  the  citizens  with  the 
fact  that  their  republic  was  a  thing  of  the  past.  He  needed 
a  pretext;  by  a  judicious  use  of  money,  his  agents  raised 
a  mob  against  the  boyards,  who,  being  assaulted,  invoked 
the  strong  arm  of  the  law,  in  the  person  of  Ivan.  The 
grand  duke  came  to  Novgorod  in   1475,  to  hold  court. 


lOO 


lOI 


He  at  once  ordered  the  arrest  of  the  possadnik,  Marfa's 
son,  and  a  number  of  bovards  who  believed  in  a  repubHc, 
had  them  put  in  chains  and  carried  to  Ab)SCo\v.  This 
was  in  violation  of  the  charter,  but  Ivan  had  an  elastic 
conscience.  Next  he  tem])te(I  a  scribe  to  mention  him  as 
Sovereign  instead  of  "  lord,"  in  an  official  document;  and 
when,  in  a  last  effort  to  save  the  republic.  Mar  fa's 
partisans  killed  a  number  of  Ivan's  friends,  it  was  evi- 
dently his  duty  to  restore  order. 

Upon  his  return  to  Moscow,  he  announced  that  Nov- 
gorod was  the  enemy  of  the  (ireek  Ihurch,  and  the  ally 
of  the  Pope  and  of  Lithuania.  This  so  alarmed  the 
Metropolitan  and  the  priests  that  they  bei^j^ed  Ivan  to 
make  war  upon  the  wicked  city.  Many  dukes  and 
boyards,  moved  by  loyalty  for  the  church,  and  j^erhaps 
scenting  spoils,  flocked  to  his  camp.  Marfa's  partisans 
in  vain  tried  to  arouse  the  citizens  by  the  cry,  *'  Let  us 
die  for  liberty  and  St.  Sophia  !  "  It  fell  on  deaf  ears  ;  every 
one  for  himself,  was  the  general  thought.  Novgorod 
surrendered.  Ivan  guaranteed, — for  just  so  long  as  it 
should  suit  him, — the  people's  lives  and  property,  their 
ancient  code  of  laws,  and  exemption  from  Muscovite 
service ;  but  the  vetche  and  office  of  possadnik  were 
abolished,  and  with  them  died  the  republic.  (  1478.) 

Having  settled  with  Novgorod  to  his  satisfaction,  Ivan 
bethought  himself  of  establishing  peace  in  his  own  house- 
hold. Russian  writers  state  that  his  wife,  Sophia, 
annoyed  him  by  often  repeating  the  interesting  inquiry, 
'*  How  long  am  I  to  be  the  slave  of  the  Tartars?  "  The 
Khan  of  the  Golden  Horde  had  been  dissolved  since 
Tamerlane's  raid ;  several  states  had  been  formed  from  it, 


of  which  the  principal  were  Kazan,  Sarai  or  Astrakhan, 
and  the  Crimea.  Kazan  was  ruled  by  a  czar ;  its  people 
were  the  descendants  of  Mongols  and  Uulgars  who  had 
made  great  progress  in  commerce.  The  Khan  of  Sarai 
and  his  men  clung  to  the  life  of  nomads ;  but  the  subjects 
of  the  Khan  of  the  Crimea,  were  Mongols,  Armenians, 
(ireeks,  Jews,  and  Italians;  and  all  three  had  this  in 
common  that  they  were  constantly  indulging  in  quarrels 
and  strife  at  home. 

Ivan  knew  all  this,  because  sometimes  a  chief  would 
come  to  Moscow  for  an  asylum,  and  others  took  service 
in  his  army.  He  no  longer  sent  tribute,  although  occa- 
sionally, when  he  was  occupied  elsewhere,  he  did  send  a 
small  j)resent.  In  1478  Khan  Akhmet  sent  ambassadors 
to  Moscow  to  remind  him  that  the  tribute  was  in  arrears. 
Ivan,  who  had  apparently  a  wonderful  command  over 
his  features,  pretended  to  lose  his  temper,  jumped  on  the 
picture  of  the  khan,  and  ordered  all  the  envoys  except 
one  to  be  put  to  death.  The  survivor  was  told  to  go  home, 
and  tell  his  master  of  his  reception. 

Ivan  had  reasonable  cause  for  thinking  that  Akhmet 
would  be  displeased,  and  collected  an  army  of  150,000 
men  on  the  Oka,  where  he  took  up  a  strong  position. 
He  had  been  right  in  his  conjecture,  for  Akhmet  gathered 
an  army  and  in  due  time  arrived  on  the  opposite  bank 
of  the  river.  Ivan  had  time  to  reflect.  He  did  not  much 
fancy  risking  a  decisive  battle,  and  returned  to  Moscow  to 
consult  his  mother,  the  boyards,  and  the  priests.  All 
urged  him  to  fight,  and  finally  he  came  back  to  the  camp, 
convinced  that  scheming  and  plotting  were  more  in  his 
line.  All  this  time  the  two  armies  lay  within  earshot, 
Sto.  of  Russia — 7 


I 


I02 


exchanf^^inor  complimentary  remarks,  with  no  casnaltles. 
The  khan  otYered  to  pardon  Ivan  on  condition  tliat  he 
shonld  come  and  hold  his  stirrnj);  or,  if  he  were  too 
tired,  if  he  shonld  send  some  hii^di  officer  to  do  it  in  his 
name.  Ivan  shook  his  head.  Meanwhile  the  priests  at 
Moscow  were  growing-  impatient,  and  the  Archhishop 
Vassian  sent  him  a  warm  letter.  It  happened  that  Akhmet 
was  (piite  as  prndent  as  Ivan;  hnt  when  the  winter  came 
and  the  Oka,  instead  of  a  harrier,  became  an  easy  crossing", 
Ivan  ordered  the  retreat.  Jnst  then  the  two  armies,  led 
by  snch  brave  commanders,  were  seized  with  a  panic,  and 
away  they  Hed  in  oi)posite  directions.  (1480.)  The 
honors  were  with  Ivan,  becanse  he  did  not  have  so  far 
to  rnn  as  Akhmet,  who  did  not  stop  nntil  he  reached 
Sarai.  It  is  not  stated  why  Ivan  received  no  snrname 
from  this  great  battle. 

The  following  year,  1481,  Ivan  had  snfficiently  re- 
covered to  show  the  conrage  he  possessed.  There  was  a 
distnrbance  in  Novgorod,  where  the  jK'ople  did  not  ap- 
preciate the  nobility  of  his  character.  He  ordered  some 
of  the  boyards  to  be  tortured  and  put  to  death,  and  cii^lit 
thousand  citizens  were  forcibly  j)acked  off  to  Souzdal. 

In  fear  of  his  doughty  enemy  Akhmet.  Ivan  made 
friends  with  the  Khan  of  the  Crimea,  calculating  that  if 
the  former  should  attack  him  again,  he  would  have  to 
look  out  for  his  rear.  Akhmet.  however,  seemed  to  have 
had  enough  of  it,  and  Ivan,  who  was  on  bad  terms  with 
Lithuania  and  I^oland,  suggested  to  his  friend  that  a 
raid  into  those  territories  might  pay.  The  Khan  of  the 
Crimea  took  the  hint;  he  j^enetrated  as  far  as  Kief  which 
he  captured  and  pillaged.  ( 1482.)    The  famous  monastery 


103 


of  the  Catacombs  was  almost  destroyed ;  but  Ivan  had  the 
satisfaction  of  knowing  that  his  two  enemies  had  other 
tilings  to  think  of,  instead  of  annoying  him. 

In  1487  war  broke  out  with  Kazan.  A  Russian  army 
marched  against  it,  but  Ivan  did  not  take  command.  As 
a  result,  the  city  was  taken  and  the  khan,  who  had 
assumed  the  title  of  czar,  was  brought  a  prisoner  to  Mos- 
cow. Fearing  that  he  would  unite  the  other  Tartars 
against  him  if  he  annexed  the  territory  at  once,  he 
appointed  a  nephew  of  his  friend,  the  Khan  of  the  Crimea, 
but  placed  Russian  soldiers  in  the  fortress,  while  he 
added  die  title  of  Prince  of  lUilgaria  to  his  own.  Other 
Tartar  princes  sent  envoys  to  protest  against  the  arrest. 
Ivan  did  not  receive  them  in  i)erson,  and  refused  to 
release  the  prisoner,  but  he  ordered  the  envoys  to  be 
treated  with  great  honor  and  gave  them  so  many  presents, 
that  they  returned  in  great  good  humor. 

In  1492,  die  King  of  Poland  died,  leaving  that  king- 
dom to  his  eldest  son  Albert,  and  Lithuania  to  his  second 
son  Alexander.  Ivan  was  justly  indignant  that  he  had 
not  been  remembered  in  the  will.  He  sent  envoys  to 
P>ajazet  II,  Sultan  of  Turkey,  to  the  Kings  of  Hungary 
and  Moldavia,  and  to  his  old  friend  the  Khan  of  the 
Crimea,  to  secure  their  assistance  or  at  least  their  kind 
neutrality.  ( )f  the  services  of  the  Khan  of  the  Crimea  he 
felt  assured. 

He  began  by  discovering  a  Polish  i)lot  against  his  life 
at  Moscow,  and  api)eale(l  to  the  religious  prejudices  of 
the  Lithuanian  nobles  belonging  to  the  (ireek  Church, 
omitting  to  mention  his  little  arrangement  with  the  in- 
fidel sultan.     When  Alexander  sent  envoys  to  negotiate 


104 

terms  of  peace,  Ivan's  deputies  said  to  them :  "  Lithuania 
has  profited  by  the  misfortunes  of  Russia  to  take  our  terri- 
tory, but  to-day  thing-s  are  changed."  They  were  right. 
When  ])eace  was  concluded  in  1494,  Ivan's  frontier  in  the 
west  was  extended. 

The  marriage  of  Alexander  to  Ivan's  daughter  seemed 
to  end  the  hostility  between  the  two  countries,  but  noth- 
ing was  further  from  the  schemes  of  the  wily  grand 
duke.  He  stipulated  that  she  should  have  a  Oeek  chapel 
in  the  palace,  and  warned  her  never  to  ai)i)ear  in  a 
Catholic  church,  and  always  to  wear  the  Russian  national 
dress.  Soon  after  the  wedding  Ivan  complained  that  his 
daughter  was  forced  to  wear  Polish  costumes,  and  that 
the  Greek  Church  was  being  persecuted.  These  were  to 
him  ample  cause  for  war,  the  more  so  since  he  had  good 
reason  to  count  upon  his  friends,  the  i)riests  and  boyards 
of  the  Greek  Church.  When  the  war  broke  out,  cities 
where  the  majority  of  the  i^eople  belonged  to  that  church, 
opened  their  gates  to  his  army,  and  Alexander  was  badly 
defeated  in  the  battle  of  \edrocha.  This  war  added 
another  slice  to  Ivan's  territory. 

Alexander  in  his  distress  made  an  alliance  with  the 
Livonian  Order  and  with  the  (ireat  Horde  at  Sarai :  but 
Ivan's  old  friend,  the  Khan  of  the  Crimea,  made  a  raid 
in  (iallicia  and  X'olhynia,  and  the  Lithuanians  were 
defeated  at  Mstislaf ;  but  they  compelled  the  Russians  to 
raise  the  siege  of  Smolensk.  Meanwhile  Ivan  had  serious 
trouble.  In  I4(;5.  he  ordered  the  merchants  of  several 
Hanseatic  towns  to  be  arrested  at  Novgorod,  and  in- 
cidentally had  goods  to  the  value  of  $200,000, — an 
immense  sum  in  those  days, — carried  to  Moscow.     This 


105 

caused  the  foreign  merchants  to  leave  for  safer  places; 
but  the  Livonian  Order  invaded  his  territory,  and  in  the 
battle  of  Siritza,  they  crushed  a  Russian  army  of  50,000 
men,  but  the  following  year,  1502,  they  were  defeated  at 

Pskof. 

Toward  die  end  of  his  life  he  was  in  doubt  about  his 
successor,  because  his  eldest  son  was  dead.  At  first 
he  thought  of  making  his  grandson  Dmitri,  his  heir ;  but 
he  changed  his  mind,  sent  his  daughter-in-law  and  grand- 
son to  prison  and  i)roclaimed  his  second  son  Vassili  his 
heir.  He  died  in  1505,  after  a  reign  of  forty-three  years. 
It  was  under  his  direction  that  a  new  code  of  laws,  the 
Oulogenia,  was  i)repared. 


IS-' 


XII— RUSSIA  ^FXO^[ES  AX  AUTOCRACY 

T  TASSILI,  Ivan's  son,  showed  a  great  resemblance  to 
^  his  father.  He  did  not  evince  any  greater  love  for 
his  near  relatives,  as  one  of  his  first  acts  was  to  put  his 
nephew  Dmitri  in  prison,  where  he  died.  One  of  his 
brothers  who  did  not  like  his  manners,  tried  to  escape, 
but  was  brought  back  and  severely  punished. 

The  republic  of  Pskof.  and  the  dukedoms  of  Riazan 
and  Xovgorod-Seversky  were  still  enjoying  some  degree 
of  liberty,  which  X'assili  did  not  approve.  At  l*skof,  the 
grand  duke  was  represented  by  a  jiaiiiicsfjiik,  or  ducal 
delegate ;  the  people,  citizens  and  peasants,  nobles  and 
lower  classes,  quarreled  constantly  among  themselves, 
but  united  to  quarrel  with  the  delegate.  Vassili  deter- 
mined to  put  an  end  to  this.  He  came  to  Xovgorod  to 
hold  court,  and  summoned  the  magistrates  of  Pskof  to 
appear  before  him,  and  when  they  arrived  he  ordered 
their  arrest.  A  merchant  of  Pskof  heard  of  it  and,  hurry- 
ing home,  told  the  people.  Immediately  the  bell  was  rung 
to  convoke  the  vetche,  and  the  masses  called  for  war  with 
Moscow.  More  prudent  counsels  prevailed  when  mes- 
sengers arrived  from  the  prisoners,  imploring  their 
friends  not  to  try  a  useless  resistance  and  to  avoid  the 
shedding  of  blood.     A  leading  citizen  was  sent  to  V  assili 

1 06 


107 

to   offer   him    submission;   he    was    dismissed    with   the 
answer  that  one  of  the  diaks  or  secretaries  would  come 
to  Pskof  to  let  the  people  know  the  terms.     When  that 
officer  arrived,  he  was  admitted  in  the  vetche,  where  he 
informed  his  hearers  that  Vassili  imposed  two  conditions, 
namely,  that   Pskof  and  the  towns  subject  to  it  must  re- 
ceive his  delegates,  and  that  the  vetche  must  be  abolished 
and  the  great  bell,  used  to  convoke  it,  must  be  taken  down. 
Twenty-four  hours  were  asked  to  deliberate.     Before  the 
time  expired,  the  vetche  met  for  the  last  time,  when  the 
first  magistrate  addressed  the  delegate.    '*  It  is  written  in 
our  chronicles,"  he  said,  '*  that  our  ancestors  took  oaths  to 
the  grand  duke.     The  people  of  Pskof  swore  never  to 
rebel  against  our  lord  who  is  at   Moscow,  nor  to  ally 
themselves   with   Lithuania,   with    Poland,  nor  with  the 
(Germans,  otherwise  the  wrath  of  God  would  be  upon 
them,    bringing    with    it    famine,    fires,    floods,    and   the 
invasion  of  the  infidels.     If  the  grand  duke,  on  his  part, 
did  not  observe  his  vow,  he  dared  the  same  consequences. 
Xow  our  town  and  our  bell  are  in  the  power  of  (lod  and 
the   duke.     As   for  us,   we   have  kept  our  oath."     The 
great  bell   was  taken   to   Xovgorod,  and  \^assili  visited 
**  his  patrimony."     Three  hundred  wealthy  families  were 
transported   to   other    cities    and    replaced   by    as   many 
families  from  Moscow.     When  he  departed  from  Pskof, 
he  left  a  garrison  of  5,000  guards  and  500  artillerymen. 
That  was  the  end  of  the  last  republic  in  Russia.  (1510.) 
lu    1521,  it  was  the  turn  of   Riazan  whose  duke  was 
accused  of  having  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  Khan 
of  the  Crimea.     He  was  summoned  to  Moscow,  where 
he  was  arrested,  but  he  managed  to  escape.     His  duke- 


io8 


dom,  however,  was  annexed  to  ^Moscow.  Two  years 
later,  in  1523,  the  Duke  of  Xovgorod-Severski  was  put 
in  prison  for  underhand  deahng  with  Poland,  and  that 
dukedom  was  added  to  Vassili's  territories.  This 
rounded  up  X'assili's  possessions  in  Central  Russia. 

The  grand  duke  continued  his  father's  policy  toward 
Lithuania.  When  Alexander  died,  he  tried  to  become 
Grand  Duke  of  Wilna,  but  the  King  of  Poland  was  too 
quick  for  him.  War  broke  out,  but  neither  gained  any 
important  advantage,  and  in  1509  a  perpetual  peace  was 
concluded  wherein  \'assili  renounced  all  claims  upon 
Kief  and  Smolensk.  The  ''  perpetual  peace  "  lasted  three 
years.  X'assili  then  went  to  the  other  extreme,  by  declar- 
ing that  '*  as  long  as  his  horse  was  in  marching  condition 
and  his  sword  cut  sharp,  there  should  be  neither  peace 
nor  truce  with  Lithuania."  In  15 14,  the  Russian  army 
besieged  and  took  Smolensk,  but  in  the  same  year  they 
were  badly  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Orcha. 

The  two  grand  dukes  tried  to  involve  as  many  allies 
as  they  could.  The  Khan  of  the  Crimea,  the  useful 
friend  of  Vassili's  father,  had  become  the  son's  enemy; 
Vassili  offset  him  by  an  alliance  with  the  Khan  of  Astra- 
khan. When  Sigismund  tried  to  secure  the  help  of 
Sweden,  X'assili  sought  that  of  Denmark  ;  and  when  his 
enemy  set  the  Dnieper  Cossacks  at  him,  the  grand  duke 
induced  the  Teutonic  Order  to  invade  Poland.  After 
Sigismund  was  defeated  at  Smolensk,  the  Emperor  of 
Germany  and  the  Pope  offered  to  mediate ;  the  latter 
advised  X'assili  to  let  Lithuania  alone,  and  to  turn  his 
attention  toward  Constantinople.  Negotiations  com- 
menced in  1520,  but  it  was  six  years  later  before  a  truce 


109 


was  concluded.     On  this  occasion  Vassili  made  a  speech 
in  which  he  praised  Emperor  Charles  V,  and  Pope  Clem- 
ent VII,— but  Lithuania  lost  Smolensk.     It  was  during 
this  war  that  the  partition  of  Poland  was  first  mentioned. 
Vassili  did  not  neglect  the  east,  even  while  engaged  in 
the  west.     Kazan  had  expelled  the  nephew  of  the  Khan  of 
the  Crimea  whom  Ivan  III  had  appointed,  and  elected  a 
Khan    hostile    to    Russia.      Two   expeditions    were    sent 
against  the  city   but  nothing  was  effected.     When  this 
khan    died.    X'assili    succeeded    in    installing    a    friendly 
prince,  but  he  was  overthrown  and  a  relative  of  the  Khan 
of  the  Crimea  took  his  place.    He  prepared  a  great  inva- 
sion of  Russia  in  1521,  and  did  gain  a  decided  victory  on 
the  Oka,  after  which  he  ravaged  the  territory  of  the  grand 
duke.     X'assili  was  compelled  to  humble  himself  before 
the  khan,  in  order  to  save  Moscow  ;  he  made  him  pres- 
ents and  in  the  treaty  signed  by  him,  called  himself  the 
khan's   tributary.      When    the   khan    withdrew,   he    was 
attacked  in  Riazan  and  the  treaty  was  taken  away  from 
him.     The  invasion   was,   however,  a  calamity   for  the 
grand  dukedom,  which  was  devastated  by  fire,  and  a  host 
of  women  and  children  were  carried  off,  to  be  sold  as 
slaves  at  Astrakhan  and  Kaffa. 

The  following  year  Vassili  collected  a  large  army  on 
the  Oka  and  challenged  the  Khan  of  the  Crimea  to  come 
and  give  battle.  The  offer  was  declined  with  the  remark 
that  he  knew  the  way  into  Russia,  and  that  he  was  not 
in  the  habit  of  consulting  his  enemies  as  to  when  and 
where  he  was  to  fight. 

Hoping  to  profit  by  the  quarrels  among  the  Tartars, 
Vassili  sent  an  expedition  to  Kazan  in  1523,  and  again  m 


I  lO 


1524,  but  both  were  unsuccessful.  Kazan  owed  its 
wealth  to  a  fair,  which  attracted  a  host  of  merchants. 
X'assili  thought  that  he  would  destroy  his  enemy's  pros- 
perity by  establishing  a  rival  fair.  Accordingly  one  was 
opened  at  Makarief,  and  this  time  the  grand  duke's 
expectations  were  realized.  This  was  the  origin  of  the 
world-famous  fair  at  Xishni  Novgorod,  whither  it  was 
transferred  afterwards. 

\'assili  made  a  long  stride  forward  in  the  direction  of 
autocracy.  He  consulted  neither  boyard  nor  priest.  Tie 
deposed  the  Metropolitan  and  banished  him  to  a  mon- 
astery. Prince  Kholmski,  who  was  married  to  one  of 
Vassili's  sisters,  was  thrown  into  prison  for  failing  to 
show  abject  respect.  When  one  of  the  boyards  com- 
plained that  "  The  grand  duke  decided  all  the  (piestions, 
shut  up  with  two  others  in  the  bedchamber,"  the  noble 
was  promptly  arrested,  condemned  to  death,  and  exe- 
cuted, lie  interrupted  the  objection  of  a  high  noble 
with,  "  ]>e  silent,  lout!"  His  court  displayed  great 
splendor,  but  it  was  semi-Asiatic.  The  throne  was 
guarded  by  young  nobles  called  rytidis,  dressed  in  long 
caftans  of  white  satin,  high  caps  of  white  fur,  and  carry- 
ing silver  hatchets. 

Like  his  father,  he  tried  to  attract  artists  and  learned 
men,  and  exchanged  embassies  with  most  of  the  Euro- 
pean Courts.  He  extended  the  frontiers  of  his  empire, 
but  ruthlessly  suppressed  free  thought.  It  has  been 
claimed  that  the  Slav  is  fit  only  for  an  absolute  govern- 
ment. The  history  of  Russia  contradicts  the  statement. 
The  idea  of  aut(^cracy  was  Asiatic  and  was  imported  with 
the  Tartar  \oke. 


XII  I—I  VAX  IV,  THE  TERRIHLE 


WHEN  Wassili  died  in  1533,  he  left  two  infant  sons, 
Ivan  and  (leorge,  the  elder  three  years  old.  His 
widow,  Helena  (ilinski,  assumed  the  regency.  She  was  a 
woman  remarkable  for  si)irit  and  beauty,  and  showed  her 
courage  in  ruthlessly  suppressing  every  attempt  of  high 
nobles  to  contest  her  authority.  She  sent  her  husband's 
brother  (ieorge  to  prison,  and  let  him  die  there,  (^ne  of 
her  own  uncles,  who  had  been  in  her  confidence,  showed 
too  much  ambition  and  suffered  the  same  fate.  Andrew, 
another  brother  of  X^assili,  tried  to  make  his  escape ;  he 
was  promptly  brought  back  and  placed  in  confinement. 
This  caused  an  unimportant  war  with  Poland,  ending  in  a 
truce  in  1537.  11ie  Tartars  of  Kazan  and  the  Crimea 
were  fre(iuently  defeated.  But  Helena  was  cordially  hated 
by  the  great  nobles  at  Moscow;  she  was  poisoned,  and 

died  in  1538. 

Ivan,  the  oldest  son  and  heir,  was  dien  eight  years  old. 
It  must  be  placed  to  the  credit  of  his  mother  that  he  had 
learned  to  read,  for  the  children  were  sadly  neglected 
after  her  death,  and  it  was  the  boy's  principal  solace  and 
occupation.  In  later  years  Ivan  wrote  of  this  time,  "  We 
and  our  brother  louri  (George)  were  treated  like 
strangers,  like  the  children  of  beggars.     We  were  ill- 


III 


112 


clothed,  cold  and  luinc^ry."  What  impressed  the  child 
especially,  was  that  when  foreign  envoys  arrived  he  was 
placed  upon  the  throne  and  the  same  nobles  who  showed 
him  such  contemptuous  indifference,  were  respectful 
and  even  servile  on  such  occasions.  He  noticed,  too.  that 
when  these  proud  nobles  needed  anything,  it  was  neces- 
sary that  the  papers  should  be  signed  by  him.  All  this 
set  the  child  thinking,  and  being  a  manly,  bright  boy, 
he  came  to  the  conclusion  that,  after  all,  he  was  the  real 
master. 

After  many  quarrels  among  themselves,  Andrew 
Choui'ski,  the  head  of  a  noble  family,  had  become  all- 
powerful  ;  all  important  offices  were  occupied  by  his 
favorites  and  friends.  Ivan  noticed  it  all,  but  said  noth- 
ing. He  was  thirteen  years  old  when,  after  the  Christmas 
celebration  of  1543,  he  suddenly  summoned  the  boyards 
before  him,  and  in  a  threatening  tone  sternly  accused 
them  of  their  misdeeds.  '*  There  are  among  you  many 
guilty  ones,"  he  said,  '*  but  this  time  I  am  satisfied  with 
making  one  example."  He  ordered  the  guards  to  seize 
Andrew  Chouiski,  and  had  him  then  and  there  torn  to 
pieces  by  dogs.  After  this  terrible  punishment,  he 
ordered  the  arrest  of  the  most  disobedient  nobles,  who 
were  transported  to  distant  places. 

The  thirteen-year-old  boy  then  assumed  the  government, 
relying  chiefly  upon  his  mother's  relations,  the  Glinskis. 
In  1547,  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  he  directed  the  Metro- 
politan to  crown  him,  not  as  ( irand  Duke  but  as  Czar.  In 
a  Bible  printed  in  the  Slavonic  language,  he  had  read 
of  the  C::ar  Xebuchadnezzar,  the  Ccar  Pharaoh,  David, 
Gear  of  Israel,  etc.     He  knew,  besides,  that  the  former 


I 


(113) 


Ivan  IV 


I  12 


cIotbe(l.  0(^1(1  and  luini^ry."  W'liat  impressed  the  cliild 
especially,  was  that  when  foreii^n  envoys  arrived  he  was 
l)lace(l  upon  the  throne  and  the  same  nobles  who  showed 
him  such  contemptuous  indifference,  were  r<'*;])ectful 
and  even  servile  on  such  occasions.  lie  notice<l.  loo.  that 
when  these  proud  nobles  needed  anythini^.  it  was  neces- 
sary that  the  papers  should  be  sii^nud  by  him.  All  this 
set  the  child  thinkinj^,  and  hviuix  a  manly,  bright  boy, 
he  came  to  the  conclusion  that,  after  all,  he  was  the  real 
master. 

After  many  quarrels  amonq-  themselves,  .\ndre\v 
Chouiski,  the  head  of  a  noble  familv.  had  become  all- 
]")owerful  ;  all  important  office  were  occupied  b\'  his 
favorites  and  friends.  Ivan  noticed  it  all,  but  said  noth- 
ing-. 1  le  was  thirteen  \  ears  old  wlun.  after  the  Christmas 
celebration  of  154^^.  he  suddenly  smnrnoned  the  l)o\ards 
before  him,  and  in  a  threatening-  lone  sternly  accused 
them  of  their  misdeeds.  *'  There  are  atuon^-  you  many 
o^uiltx  one>."  he  said,  *"  but  this  lime  1  am  >ati^fied  with 
makini;-  one  example."  lie  ordered  the  i^uar<ls  to  seize 
Andrew  ("houiski.  and  had  him  then  and  there  torn  to 
pieces  by  docfs.  \fter  this  terrible  punishment,  he 
ordered  the  arrest  of  the  most  disobedient  nobles,  who 
were  transported  to  distant  places. 

The  thirteen-year-old  boy  then  assumed  the  ij^ovemment. 
relyiui;  chiefly  upon  his  mother's  relations,  the  (ilinskis. 
In  1547,  at  the  aj^e  of  seventeen,  he  directed  the  Metro- 
politan to  crown  him,  not  as  ( Irand  Duke  but  as  Czar.  In 
a  Bible  printed  in  the  Slavonic  lan|L;-uai;e.  he  had  read 
of  the  C::iir  Xebuchadnezzar,  the  C ".::(/;'  Pharaoh,  Davitl, 
Ccnr  of  Israel,  etc.     Me  knew,  besides,  that  the  former 


(•13) 


Ivan  IV 


114 


masters  of  the  grand  dukes,  the  khans,  had  been  ad- 
dressed by  that  title.  F^erhaps  it  was  because  he  wished 
it  to  be  known  that  he  considered  himself  the  equal  of  any 
Tartar  ruler ;  perhaps  because  he  desired  to  have  a  title 
superior  to  that  of  the  nobles  who  descended  from  former 
grand  dukes,  and  who  inherited  the  rank  without  the 
power;  at  any  rate  Ivan  I\'  was  crowned  as  the  first 
Czar. 

Young  as  he  was,  and  since  his  thirteenth  year  beyond 
control,  Ivan's  life  had  been  the  reverse  of  good.  But 
when,  soon  after  the  coronation,  he  married  Anastasia 
Romanof,  he  made  an  earnest  effort  to  reform.  The 
relatives  of  his  mother  and  of  his  wife,  the  Glinskis  and 
the  Romanofs,  enjoyed  his  favor  at  this  time. 

There  was  much  suppressed  dissatisfaction  among  the 
nobles,  and  many  plots  were  hatched  against  him.  In 
the  year  of  his  coronation,  a  fire  swept  wooden  Moscow, 
and  about  1,700  peo|)le  perished  in  the  flames.  Ivan 
ordered  an  investigation,  and  withdrew  to  Vorobief. 
Crowds  gathered  in  the  thoroughfares,  when  mysterious 
persons  appeared  among  them  declaring  that  the  Glinskis 
had  set  the  city  on  fire.  Soon  after  shouts  were  heard, 
'*  It  is  the  Princess  Anne  Glinski  who,  with  her  two  sons, 
has  bewitched  the  city ;  she  has  taken  human  hearts, 
plunged  them  in  water,  and  with  this  water  has  sprinkled 
the  houses.  This  is  the  cause  of  the  destruction  of  Mos- 
cow !  "  A  mob  collected  and  made  for  the  ])alace  of  the 
Glinskis  and  one  of  them,  Cieorge,  was  stabbed.  They 
went  on  to  Vorobief,  where  they  demanded  the  life  of 
Ivan's  uncle.  The  czar's  own  life  was  in  danger  and 
the  mob  had  to  be  dispersed  by  force. 


115 


Ivan  did  not  forget  this,  and  terrible  was  his  vengeance 
ujKMi  the  boyards.  At  this  time  he  gave  his  confidence  to 
two  men,  one  a  priest  named  Silvester,  who  had  the 
reputation  of  being  a  very  honest  man ;  the  other,  a 
member  of  the  smaller  nobility,  named  Adachef  who,  in 
1551,  as  Minister  of  the  Interior,  gave  to  Russian  cities 
the  first  municipal  liberties.  Ivan  showed  an  unusual 
interest  in  the  people;  it  was  under  his  orders  that  a 
new  code  of  laws  (Soudebnik)  was  prepared,  and  many 
reforms  were  made  in  the  Church. 

This   rather    increased   than    diminished   the   hostility 
of  the  nobles.     Ivan's  favorites,   Silvester  and  Adachef 
had  grown  ambitious  and  the  former  especially  was  over- 
bearing.    He  openly  opposed  the  czar,  and  tried  to  sow 
discord  between  him  and  his  wife.    When  Ivan's  favorite 
son  died,  Silvester  told  him  that  it  was  a  punishment  from 
heaven    for   his   disobedience.      The    two   men    tried   to 
procure  the  dismissal  of  the  Glinskis  and  Romanofs,  and 
for  that  purpose  made  friends  widi  the  boyards  whom 
Ivan  suspected.     In   1553,  the  czar  fell  dangerously  ill; 
he   called   in   the  boyards   and   ordered   them   to   swear 
loyalty  to  his  infant  son  Dmitri.    They  refused.    He  was 
informed  that  the  nobles  were  conspiring  with  his  cousni 
X'ladimir,  whose  modier  was  distributing  money  in  the 
army.    He  was  in  terror  for  the  lives  of  his  wife  and  son. 
Once  he  said  to  the  boyards  who  had  remained  faithful, 
"  Do  not,  1  pray  you,  forget  that  you  have  sworn  an  oath 
to  my  son  and  to  me ;  do  not  let  him  fall  into  the  hands 
of  the  boyards;  fly  with  him  to  some  foreign  country, 
whithersoever   God   may    guide   you."      Ivan    recovered 
but  he  never  could  forget  the  anguish  of  those  days. 


ii6 


Ivan's  character  at  this  time  was  far  from  bad.  He 
was  only  twenty  years  old,  and  on  several  occasions 
showed  that  he  was  compassionate  instead  of  cruel.  It 
was  only  natural  that  his  nature  should  be  perverted, 
surrounded  as  he  was  by  men  of  whom  he  was  suspicious. 
Still,  such  a  change  could  only  be  gradual.  The  im- 
mediate consequence  of  the  conduct  of  his  nobles,  was 
that  it  drew  him  closer  to  the  people.  This  w^as  shown  in 
1506,  when  he  convoked  the  three  orders,  nobles,  priests, 
and  people,  to  discuss  public  affairs. 

His  first  act,  after  his  recovery,  was  to  banish  his 
former  favorites.  Silvester  was  ordered  to  the  monasterv 
of  St.  Cyril,  and  Adachef  was  sent  to  Livonia.  Soon 
afterwards  the  Czarina  Anastasia  died ;  there  was  a 
strong  suspicion  that  she  had  been  poisoned.  To  add  to 
his  bitterness.  Prince  Andrew  Kourbski.  a  descendant  of 
Rurik  and  a  great  friend  of  Silvester  and  Adachef,  per- 
mitted 15,000  Russians  to  be  defeated  by  the  Poles  with 
whom  Ivan  was  at  war.  Kourbski  deserted  to  the  Kinc 
of  Poland. 

It  appears  that  Ivan  at  this  time  feared  for  his  life,  for 
he  withdrew  to  a  neighboring  castle  with  his  friends, 
servants,  and  treasures.  From  there  he  wrote  his  abdica- 
tion in  two  letters,  one  addressed  to  the  Metropolitan, 
the  other  to  the  people  of  Moscow.  This  action  struck 
terror  among  the  nobles  and  the  people.  The  former 
dreaded  that  the  people  might  rise  and  avenge  the  czar, 
and  the  people  were  afraid  that  the  nobles  would  once 
again  usurp  the  government.  The  nobles  and  priests 
consulted  and  decided  to  beg  Ivan's  pardon  and  to  sub- 
mit to  any  punishment  he  might  impose.     Ivan  consented 


1 1 


to  return  to  Moscow  but  on  his  own  terms.  This  was 
accepted.  After  his  arrival  in  the  capital  he  established 
a  special  guard  of  one  thousand  men  who  had  a  dog's 
head  and  a  broom  hanging  from  their  saddles,  to  show 
that  they  were  ready  to  bite  and  ready  to  sweep  the 
czar's  enemies  from  off  Russian  soil. 

It  was  then  that  Ivan  began  to  earn  the  surname  of  The 
Terrible,  which  has  clung  to  him  ever  afterwards.  We 
have  his  own  record  in  a  letter  to  the  Monastery  of  St. 
Cyril,  in  which  he  asks  the  prayers  of  the  Church  for  the 
victims  of  his  vengeance.  He  a])i)ears  to  have  kept  a 
careful  account,  as  we  read,  "  Kazarine  Doubrofsky  and 
his  two  sons,  with  ten  men  who  came  to  their  assistance  ;  " 
"  Twenty  men  of  the  village  of  Kolmenskoe ;  "  ''  Eighty 
of  Matveiche."  It  amazes  us  to  read,  "  Remember,  Lord, 
the  souls  of  thy  servants,  to  the  number  of  1,505  persons, 
Novgorodians."  The  boyards  lived  in  a  state  of  terror ; 
few  among  them  knew  how  long  they  would  keep  their 
heads  on  their  shoulders.  Neither  rank  nor  title  was  a 
safeguard.  The  Archbishop  of  Moscow  was  dismissed, 
and  probably  murdered.  Alexander,  (ieorge's  widow, 
and  Ivan's  sister-in-law,  went  to  the  scaffold.  Prince 
Vladimir  and  his  mother,  Ivan's  uncle  and  grand-aunt, 
were  also  executed.  It  was  on  this  occasion  that  the 
''  Novgorodians,  to  the  number  of  1,505  persons"  were 
j)ut  to  death,  because  Ivan  suspected  them  of  a  plot  to 
open  the  gates  to  the  King  of  Poland.  In  1571,  there  w^is 
another  wholesale  execution,  in  which  several  of  Ivan's 
latest  favorites  were  victims. 

The  burden  of  his  wrath  fell  upon  the  boyards.     It  may 
have  been  for  the  purpose  of  humiliating  them  and  the 


Ii8 


Churchmen  that  he  assembled  delegates  of  those  two 
classes  to  confer  with  representatives  of  the  merchants  of 
Moscow  and  Smolensk,  about  the  war  with  Poland.  Ivan 
addressed  the  assembly  in  person,  and  it  was  decided 
that  the  war  should  continne. 

It  was  under  his  reign  that  r>ritish  traders  acci<lentally 
discovered  the  White  Sea  and  the  mouth  of  the  Dwina. 
They  came  overland  to  Moscow  where  they  were  well 
received  and  secured  several  privileged.  Ivan  was 
anxious  to  conclude  an  offensive-defensive  alliance  with 
Elizabeth  of  England,  and  proposed  an  agreement  to 
furnish  each  other  with  an  asylum  if  either  of  them 
should  be  compelled  to  fly  from  the  ccnmtry  through 
bein<j  defeated  bv  an  enemv  or  the  rebellion  of  their 
subjects.  Elizabeth  did  not  fancy  such  an  alliance,  and 
declined  the  offer  of  an  asylum,  "  finding/'  as  she  de- 
clared, "  by  the  grace  of  God  no  dangers  of  the  sort  in 
her  dominions."  Ivan  never  ceased  recurring  to,  and 
pleading  for,  such  an  agreement,  thus  showing  his  ever 
present  suspicions. 

After  commercial  intercourse  was  established  with 
England,  and  P)ritish  traders  settled  in  Moscow.  Ivan 
continued  to  show  them  his  favor.  He  was  himself  the 
greatest  merchant  of  Russia.  The  furs  which  he  received 
from  Siberia  were  sold  to  the  foreign  merchants  at 
the  fairs.  His  agents  went  into  the  provinces  where 
they  compelled  the  people  to  sell  him  furs,  wax.  honey, 
etc.,  at  such  prices  as  he  chose  to  pay,  and  the  foreign 
merchants  had  to  buy  them  from  him  at  a  high  price. 
He  also  bought  the  imported  goods  and  sold  them  to 
Russian   merchants.     They   were  not  permitted   to   buy 


119 


from  anybody   else,   until  the  goods  of  the  czar  were 

sold. 

At  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  in  1551,  Ivan  was 
preparing  an  expedition  to  Kazan,  and  in  June  of  the 
following  year  he  descended  the  Volga  and  laid  siege  to 
that  city.  It  was  captured  after  a  brave  defense,  when 
a  number  of  the  people  were  massacred  and  the  rest 
sold  as  slaves.  This  conquest  was  followed  by  that  of 
Astrakhan  in  1554;  the  Volga  from  its  source  to  its 
mouth  was  thereafter  a  Russian  river.  The  Cossacks  of 
the  Don  also  submitted  to  him. 

The  European  countries  bordering  on  Russia  dreaded 
that  country's  growing  power.  Ivan,  after  his  corona- 
tion, sent  to  western  Europe  to  engage  a  number  of 
euLnneers  and  mechanics  ;  these  men  were  stopped  on  the 
road,  and  none  of  them  ever  reached  Moscow.  Sigis- 
nuuid  of  Poland  even  threatened  to  kill  the  British  mer- 
chants on  the  P>altic,  "  because,"  he  said,  "  if  the  Mus- 
covite, who  is  not  only  our  present  adversary,  but  the 
eternal  enemy  of  all  free  countries,  should  provide  him- 
self with  guns,  bullets,  and  munitions;  and,  above  all, 
with  mechanics  who  continue  to  make  arms,  hitherto 
unknown  in  this  barbaric  country,"  he  would  be  a  menace 
to  Europe.  Ivan,  on  the  other  hand,  was  equally  anxious 
that  the  Russians  should  possess  all  the  advantages  of 
Europe's  superior  civilization.  This,  added  to  the  in- 
herited hostility  between  the  two  countries,  caused  many 

wars. 

While  Ivan  was  pursuing  his  conquests  in  the  south, 
he  was  attacked  by  Ciustavus  Wasa,  Sweden's  famous 
king,  who  entertained  the  same   fears  as  the  King  of 


I20 

Poland.  The  war  ended  by  a  commercial  treaty  whereby 
Swedish  merchants  miij^ht  trade  with  India  and  China 
by  way  of  Russia,  and  those  of  Russia  with  Holland, 
England,  and  France  by  way  of  Sweden.  This  war  had 
scarcely  ceased  before  envoys  of  the  Livonian  Order 
arrived  to  recjuest  a  renewal  of  the  truce.  Ivan  de- 
manded tribute  for  louricf  which  he  claimed  as  his 
"  patrimony."  This  was  refused,  and  war  was  declared. 
It  was  owing  to  Ivan  that  this  brotherhood  was  dissolved 
and  its  territory  divided.  In  1566,  a  truce  was  proposed 
by  Poland. 

It  was  on  this  occasion  that  he  called  the  assembly 
referred  to  on  page  116.  The  war  continued.  Ivan  was 
attacked  also  by  Sultan  Selim  II  of  Turkey,  in  1569,  and 
the  Khan  of  the  Crimea  marched  straight  upon  Moscow, 
set  fire  to  the  suburbs,  and  destroyed  the  capital  exce])t 
the  Kremlin.  He  carried  off  a  hundred  thousand 
prisoners.  (1571.)  As  he  withdrew,  he  wrote  to  Ivan: 
*'  I  burn,  I  ravage  everything  on  account  of  Kazan  and 
Astrakhan.  I  came  to  you  and  burned  Moscow.  I 
wished  to  have  your  crown  and  your  head,  but  you  did 
not  show  yourself;  you  declined  a  battle  and  you  dare 
call  yourself  a  Czar  of  Moscow!  Will  you  live  at  peace 
with  me?  Yield  me  up  Kazan  and  Astrakhan.  If  you 
have  only  money  to  offer  me,  it  will  be  useless  were  it 
the  riches  of  the  world.  What  I  want  is  Kazan  and 
Astrakhan !  As  to  the  roads  to  your  empire,  I  have  seen 
them — I  know  them."  The  khan  made  another  invasion 
the  next  year,  1572,  but  was  defeated. 

In  the  same  year  Sigismund  Augustus  TT  of  Poland 
died.     There  was  a  party  at  Warsaw  that  proposed  to 


121 

elect  Ivan's  son,  but  the  czar  wanted  Poland  for  himself. 
He  failed  in  the  attempt,  and  the  Duke  of  Anjou,  brother 
of  the  King  of  France,  was  chosen.  He  did  not  like  the 
people  and  fled  ;  his  place  was  filled  by  Stephen  P^atory, 
Governor  of  Transsylvania,  a  young,  capable,  and  ener- 
getic noble.  I'atory  took  in  his  service  a  number  of 
trained  (krman  and  Hungarian  soldiers,  and  took 
Polotsk  after  a  brave  defense.  He  also  captured  several 
other  towns,  but  was  rej^ulsed  at  Pskof. 

Ivan  sought  the  mediation  of  Pope  (jregory  XIII,  and 
a  truce  was  concluded  in  1582;  Ivan  ceded  Polotsk  and 

all  Livonia. 

Ivan,  in  his  manhood,  was  a  man  of  violent  temper. 
He  was  never  seen  without  an  iron-tipped  staff,  which  he 
used  freely  and  recklessly  upon  the  people  around  him. 
Nobody,    whatever    his    rank,    was    safe    from    corporal 
punishment.     He  killed  his  eldest  son  Ivan  with  a  blow, 
and  suffered   from  remorse  ever  afterward.     He  left  a 
lasting  impression  upon  Russia  by  his  reforms.     He  made 
a  law  whereby  neither  church  nor  convents  could  accjuire 
new  lands.     He  was  wonderfully  well  educated,  consider- 
ing the  neglect  of  his  early  youth,  and  tolerant  of  religious 
opinions.     A  Presbyterian  and  a  Lutheran  church  were 
built  at  Moscow  with  his  consent,  but  in  deference  to  the 
opposition    of    the    people,    they    were    removed    to   the 
surburbs.     He   was  also  the   founder  of  the  strcltsi  or 

national  guard. 

Ivan  died  in    1584,  after  a  reign  of  forty-one  years. 


XI\— RUSSIA  UNDER  T\  AX  THE  TERRIBLE 

THE  reign  of  Ivan  the  Terrible  is  remarkable,  first, 
because  it  is  the  beginning  of  Russia  as  we  know  it 
in  our  time ;  and  also  because  it  occurred  at  a  time  when 
Great  Britain  was  exploring  the  Atlantic,  and  preparing 
the  way  for  the  wonderful  expansion  of  the  English- 
speaking  race,  which  culminated  in  the  great  North 
American  Republic.  It  was  under  this  reign,  in  1558, 
that  Russia's  invasion  of  Asia  began,  and  with  it  a  move- 
ment eastward,  which  has  not  yet  ceased. 

It  is  interesting,  therefore,  to  study  the  condition  of 
the  Russian  people  at  this  important  period.  Although, 
as  we  have  seen,  the  Tartar  yoke  did  not  inlluence  the 
people  directly,  because  there  was  no  intercourse  between 
victor  and  vanquished,  the  indirect  inHuence  was  great, 
owing  to  the  adoption  of  Tartar  habits  or  customs  by  the 
dukes  and  nobles,  during  their  visits  to  the  khan.  Dur- 
ing this  time  intercourse  with  Europe  ceased ;  hence,  in 
the  1 6th  and  17th  centuries,  Russia  was  more  Asiatic 
than  European,  although  the  Russians  hated  the  victors. 
Who  can  say  how  much  influence  this  has  exerted  upon 
Russia's  conquests  in  Asia? 

Among  the  old  Slavs,  the  family  was  the  unit  from 
which  the  State  was  built  up,  and  this  was  confirmed 

123 


123 


under  the  Tartar  yoke.    There  is  some  similarity  between 
the  Empire  of  Russia  and  that  of  China,  for  there,  too, 
the  family  is  the  unit.     In  both  countries  the  Emperor  is 
not  onlv  the  master,  he  is  also  considered  as  the  father 
and  high  priest  of  his  people.    Their  persons  and  ])roperty 
are  the  emperor's,  to  do  with  as  he  pleases.     But  in  Rus- 
sia   there    was    a    nobility    descended    from    the    former 
dukes;  in  China  there  was  none,  except  the  descendant 
of  Confucius.     Yet  in  Russia  these  lords,  many  of  whom 
traced  their  descent  to  Rurik,  became  in  time  the  slaves 
of  the  czar.     They  prostrated  themselves  before  him,  as 
they  had  seen  the  courtiers  of  the  khan  do.     When  they 
presented    a    petition,    they    expressed    it    by    the    word 
tchclobitic,    which    means    *'  beating    of    the    forehead," 
showing  that  they  performed  what  is  known  in  China  as 
the  kcm^tozc.     In  addressing  the  czar,  they  said,  "Order 
me  not  to  be  chastised  ;  order  me  to  speak  a  word !  " 
The  Grand  Dukes  of  Moscow  considered  their  territory 
and  the  |)eople  on  it,  as  their  own  i)rivate  pro])erty.    They 
had  learned  this  from  the  khans.     The  palace,  a  mixture 
of  oriental  splendor  and  barbarism,  showed  the  influence 
of  the  Tartars. 

The  people  of  Russia  were  divided  into  classes,  the 
lowest  of  which  were  the  slaves  or  kliolop,  prisoners, of 
war,  men  who  had  sold  themselves,  or  who  were  born 
in  slavery.  Above  them  were  the  peasants,  born  on  the 
estate  of  a  noble,  but  still  known  as  free  men.  Then 
came  the  peasants  who  farmed  the  land  of  an  owner, 
but  these  were  few.  Much  of  the  land  was  owned  by  the 
several  niirs  or  villages,  but  in  the  course  of  time  they 
were  assigned  to  gentlemen,  who  were  able  to  serve  in 


124 

the  army  without  pay,  bein^  supported  by  the  revenues 
derived  from  these  villages.  Gradually  these  gentlemen 
looked  upon  the  land  of  the  mir  as  their  own  property, 
but  the  peasants  never  did  lose  the  conviction  that  the 
mir  was  the  real  proprietor.  In  Ivan's  time  and  later, 
the  mir  and  not  the  individual,  was  held  responsible  for 
the  tax  to  the  czar,  for  the  free  labor  furnished  to  the 
lord,  and  for  his  dues.  The  mir,  therefore,  was  absolute 
master  over  every  inhabitant  of  the  village,  and  this 
power  was  vested  in  the  starost.  The  peasant  gradually 
descended  into  a  beast  of  burden,  who  was  not  even  a 
human  being,  but  merely  a  productive  force  for  the  bene- 
fit of  the  State  and  of  the  lord. 

A  Russian  town  consisted,  first  of  the  krcmlin,  a  fort- 
ress of  wood  which,  when  required,  was  defended  by 
'*  men  of  the  service  " ;  then  came  the  suburbs,  built 
around  the  krcmlin,  and  inhabited  by  the  people.  They 
were  governed  l)y  a  vo'icvod  or  governor,  appointed  by 
the  czar,  or  by  a  starost  or  mayor,  elected  by  the  nobles, 
priests,  and  privileged  citizens.  The  principal  duty  of 
the  citizens  was  to  pay  the  taxes,  and  therefore  they  were 
forbidden  to  leave  the  city.  Under  the  Czar  Alexis,  the 
penalty  for  such  offense  was  death. 

The  merchants  did  not  form  a  separate  class.  They 
are  known  in  Russian  as  i^^osti  or  guests,  thus  showing 
that,  notwithstanding  the  old  and  honorable  record  of 
Novgorod  and  Kief,  the  Tartar  yoke  and  subsequent  arbi- 
trary rule  of  the  grand  dukes  had  ruined  trade  or  left 
it  in  the  hands  of  aliens.  Ivan  the  Terrible  called  them 
the  moujiks  of  commerce.  I'letcher,  an  Englishman  who 
spent  many  years  in  Moscow  under  Ivan  I\',  gives  the 


i 


I 


' 


\ 


i 


125 

following  curious  pen  picture:  ''Often  you  will  see 
them  trembling  with  fear,  lest  a  boyard  should  know  what 
they  have  to  sell.  1  have  seen  them  at  times,  when  they 
had  spread  out  their  wares  so  that  you  might  make  a 
better  choice,  look  all  around  them,— as  if  they  feared 
an  enemv  would  surprise  them  and  lay  hands  on  them. 
If  I  asked  them  the  cause,  they  would  say  to  me,  '  I  was 
afraid  that  there  might  be  a  noble  or  one  of  the  sons  of 
boyards  here :  they  would  take  away  my  merchandise  by 

force.'  " 

The  Russian  women  were  kept  secluded  in  women's 
quarters  as  they  are  in  China,  but  they  remained  a  mem- 
ber of  their  own  family.  A  wife's  duty  was  "  to  obey 
her  husband  as  the  slave  obeys  his  master,"  and  she  was 
taught  to  think  of  herself  as  her  master's  property.  He 
had  the  right  to  punish  her  as  he  did  his  children  or  his 
slaves.  The  priest  Silvester  advises  the  husband  not  to 
use  sticks  that  are  too  thick  or  tipped  with  iron,  nor  to 
whip  her  before  his  men,  but  to  correct  her  moderately 
and  in  private.  Xo  Russian  woman  dared  object  to 
being  beaten.  A  Russian  proverb  says:  "I  love  you 
like  my  soul,  and  I  dust  you  like  my  jacket." 

The  men  wore  oriental  tunics  or  robes,  and  a  long 
beard ;  the  women  painted  their  faces.  Ivan  the  Terrible 
said  that  to  shave  the  beard  was  "  a  sin  that  the  blood  of 
all  the  martyrs  could  not  cleanse.  Was  it  not  to  defile 
the  image  of  man  created  by  (iod.' 

There  was  a  general  belief  in  magic  and  witchcraft : 
sorcerers  were  burned  alive  in  a  cage.  Ivan,  althougli  in 
advance  of  his  age,  was  not  free  from  superstition.  The 
art  of  medicine  was,  of  course,  still  in  its  uifancy,  and 


126 


127 


those  who  practiced  it  were  in  constant  danger  of  their 
Hves,  because  if  they  did  not  cure  a  patient,  they  might 
suffer  for  it. 

Both  the  nobles  and  the  people  were  addicted  to  the 
vice  of  drunkenness.  Xo  one  paid  any  attention  when  a 
person,  rich  or  poor,  young  or  old,  fell  down  in  the  street 
from  the  effects  of  drink.  This  is  what  the  priests  said  of 
this  vice:  "  My  brethren,  what  is  worse  than  drunken- 
ness? You  lose  memory  and  reason  like  a  madman  who 
does  not  know  what  he  is  doing.  The  drunkard  is  sense- 
less;  he  lies  like  a  corpse.  If  you  speak  to  him  he  does 
not  answer.  Think  of  his  poor  soul  which  grows  foul  in 
its  vile  body  which  is  its  prison.  ...  To  drink  is  law- 
ful and  is  to  the  glory  of  God,  who  has  given  us  wine  to 
make  us  rejoice." 

The  Metropolitan  of  Moscow,  until  a  Patriarch  was 
appointed,  was  supposed  to  be  the  head  of  the  Church, 
but  the  czar  held  the  real  power.  There  wxre  two  classes 
of  priests:  The  lUack  Clergy  lived  as  monks  in  monas- 
teries, some  of  which  were  exceedingly  wealthy ;  they 
were  forbidden  to  marry,  and  the  bishops  were  appointed 
from  among  them.  The  White  Clergy  lived  among  the 
people  and  were  compelled  to  marry.  Most  of  them 
were  grossly  ignorant.  The  same  Englishman  quoted  be- 
fore, Mr.  Fletcher,  says  of  these  priests :  '*  As  for  ex- 
horting or  instructing  their  Hock,  they  have  neither  the 
habit  of  it  nor  the  talent  for  it,  for  all  the  clergy  are  as 
profoundly  ignorant  of  the  Word  of  (iod  as  of  all  other 

learning." 

The  revenues  of  the  Empire  consisted  of  a  tax  on  every 
sixty  measures  of  corn ;  of  a  house-tax,  or  tax  on  every 


fire ;  the  customhouse  dues,  and  what  remained  of  the 
municipal  taxes  after  paying  expenses ;  of  a  tax  on  public 
baths ;  the  farming  out  of  lands  belonging  to  the  crown  ; 
the  fines  and  confiscations  in  the  *'  Court  of  the  liri- 
gands ;  "  and  finally  of  the  tribute  paid  by  thirty-six  towns 
and  their  landed  possessions  '*  belonging  to  the  Crown." 

The  Courts  of  Justice  belonged  to  the  Middle  Ages; 
tortures  were  applied  similar  to  those  employed  by  the 
Spanish  Inquisition.  A  wife  who  murdered  her  husband 
"  was  buried  alive  up  to  her  neck."  Heretics  were 
burned  at  the  stake :  sorcerers  were  burned  in  an  iron 
cage,  and  coiners  had  liquid  metal  poured  down  their 
throats.  A  noble  who  killed  a  moujik  was  fined  or  some- 
times whipped ;  but  he  might  kill  as  many  slaves  as  he 
l)leased,  because  they  were  his  property. 

The  Russian  infantry,  so  famous  under  the  early 
Norsemen,  had  given  way  to  cavalry,  in  imitation  of  the 
Tartars.  The  Imperial  Guard  was  composed  of  8,000 
young  nobles.  The  "  men-at-arms  "  were  mounted,  but 
received  no  pay  beyond  the  revenue  of  their  lands,  which 
they  held  in  return  for  their  military  service.  The  army 
numbered  about  80,000,  and,  with  a  levy  among  the  peas- 
ants, could  be  brought  up  to  300,000.  There  was,  be- 
sides, the  irregular  cavalry  of  the  Don  Cossacks,  and  of 
the  Tartars.  Such  infantry  as  there  was,  consi.sted  of 
peasants  from  the  crown  lands,  churches,  and  convents ; 
the  national  guard,  and  foreign  soldiers  or  officers. 


I 


I 


126 


those  who  practiced  it  were  in  constant  danp^er  of  their 
Hves,  because  if  they  did  not  cure  a  patient,  they  might 
suffer  for  it. 

Both  the  nobles  and  the  people  were  addicted  to  the 
vice  of  drunkenness.  Xo  one  paid  any  attention  when  a 
person,  rich  or  poor,  young  or  old,  fell  down  in  the  street 
from  the  effects  of  drink.  This  is  what  the  priests  said  of 
this  vice:  "  My  brethren,  what  is  worse  than  drunken- 
ness? You  lose  memory  and  reason  like  a  madman  who 
does  not  know  what  he  is  doing.  The  drunkard  is  sense- 
less;  he  lies  like  a  corpse.  If  you  speak  to  him  he  does 
not  answer.  Think  of  his  poor  soul  which  grows  foul  in 
its  vile  body  which  is  its  prison.  .  .  .  To  drink  is  law- 
ful and  is  to  the  glory  of  God,  who  has  given  us  wine  to 
make  us  rejoice." 

The  Metropolitan  of  Moscow,  until  a  Patriarch  was 
appointed,  was  supposed  to  be  the  head  of  the  Church, 
but  the  czar  held  the  real  power.  There  were  two  classes 
of  priests:  The  lUack  Clergy  lived  as  monks  in  monas- 
teries, some  of  which  were  exceedingly  wealthy  ;  they 
were  forbidden  to  marry,  and  the  bishops  were  appointed 
from  among  them.  The  White  Clergy  lived  among  the 
people  and  were  compelled  to  marry.  Most  of  them 
were  grossly  ignorant.  The  same  Englishman  quoted  be- 
fore, Mr.  Fletcher,  says  of  these  priests :  '*  As  for  ex- 
horting or  instructing  their  flock,  they  have  neither  the 
habit  of  it  nor  the  talent  for  it,  for  all  the  clergv  are  as 
profoundly  ignorant  of  the  Word  of  (iod  as  of  all  other 
learning." 

The  revenues  of  the  Empire  consisted  of  a  tax  on  every 
sixty  measures  of  corn  ;  of  a  house-tax,  or  tax  on  every 


I 


i 


12  J 


fire ;  the  customhouse  dues,  and  what  remained  of  the 
municipal  taxes  after  paying  expenses ;  of  a  tax  on  public 
baths :  the  farming  out  of  lands  belonging  to  the  crown  ; 
the  fines  and  confiscations  in  the  *'  Court  of  the  l>ri- 
gands ;  "  and  finally  of  the  tribute  paid  by  thirty-six  towns 
and  their  landed  possessions  "  belonging  to  the  Crown." 

The  Courts  of  Justice  belonged  to  the  Middle  Ages; 
tortures  were  applied  similar  to  those  employed  by  the 
Spanish  Incpiisition.  A  wife  who  murdered  her  husband 
*'  was  buried  alive  up  to  her  neck."  Heretics  were 
burned  at  the  stake ;  sorcerers  were  burned  in  an  iron 
cage,  and  coiners  had  liquid  metal  poured  down  their 
throats.  A  noble  who  killed  a  moujik  was  fined  or  some- 
times whipped ;  but  he  might  kill  as  many  slaves  as  he 
pleased,  because  they  were  his  property. 

The  Russian  infantry,  so  famous  under  the  early 
Norsemen,  had  given  way  to  cavalry,  in  imitation  of  the 
Tartars.  The  Imperial  Guard  was  composed  of  8,000 
young  nobles.  The  "  men-at-arms  "  were  mounted,  but 
received  no  pay  beyond  the  revenue  of  their  lands,  which 
they  held  in  return  for  their  military  service.  The  army 
numbered  about  80,000,  and,  with  a  levy  among  the  peas- 
ants, could  be  brought  up  to  300,000.  There  was,  be- 
sides, the  irregular  cavalry  of  the  Don  Cossacks,  and  of 
the  Tartars.  Such  infantry  as  there  was,  consisted  of 
peasants  from  the  crown  lands,  churches,  and  convents ; 
the  national  guard,  and  foreign  soldiers  or  officers. 


\ 


(138) 


Feodor 


•rniM'y 


XV— FEODOR.    THE    LAST    OF    RURIK'S 

DESCENDANTS 

IVAN  the  Terrible  left  two  sons,  Feodor,  the  son  of 
Anastasia  Ronianof.  and  Dmitri,  a  child,  the  son  of 
his  seventh  wife.  Feodor  was  neither  a  strong-minded 
nor  a  very  able  man.  He  was  married  to  Irene  Godou- 
nof,  and,  following  the  usual  custom,  his  wife's  relations 
held  the  principal  offices  of  the  government.  Gradually 
the  czar's  authority  passed  into  the  hands  of  Prince  Boris 
Godounof,  Irene's  brother,  a  very  ambitious  and  unscru- 
pulous man.  Wizards  had  foretold  that  Boris  would  be 
czar,  but  that  his  reign  would  last  only  seven  years,  and 
he  did  all  he  could  to  aid  his  destinv. 

He  first  caused  Feodor 's  half-brother,  Dmitri,  to  be 
sent  with  his  mother  and  her  relations  to  Ouglitch,  where 
they  would  be  out  of  the  way.  He  also  caused  the  Metro- 
politan to  be  dismissed,  and  had  a  friend  appointed  in 
his  place.  He  aroused  the  higher  nobles  against  him, 
and  then  made  an  effort  to  make  friends  with  the  smaller 
nobility, — at  the  expense  of  the  poor  peasants.  Accord- 
ing to  law,  these  people  were  free ;  that  is,  when  the  con- 
tract with  a  landowner  expired,  they  could  move  where 
they  pleased,  and  the  large  owners  could  offer  better 
terms  than  those  who  held  small  estates.     But  without 

129 


x 


VH\ 


\ 


X 


\ 


.^ 


* 


iWtPi( 


iftitiiit' 


"^^■i^UiiLLiU 


(128) 


Feodor 


X\— FEUDUR.    THE    LAST    OF    RURIK'S 

DESCEXDAXTS 


T  \  ,\X  tlu'  Terril)k'  left  two  sons,  T'oodor.  the  son  of 
^  Anaslasia  Konianof.  and  Dmitri,  a  child,  the  son  of 
his  seventh  wife.  r\H)(lor  was  neither  a  stronc^-minded 
nor  a  very  ahle  man.  lie  was  married  to  Irene  (^lodou- 
nof,  and.  followinjLT  the  nsnal  custom,  his  wife's  relations 
held  the  principal  offices  of  the  i^overnment.  (iradually 
the  czar's  authorit\  i)asscd  into  tlu-  hands  of  Prince  lioris 
(iodounof,  Irene's  hrother.  a  very  amhitions  and  unscru- 
])ulous  man.  Wizards  had  foretold  that  r)Oris  would  be 
czar,  hut  that  his  rei.^n  would  last  only  seven  years,  and 
he  did  all  he  could  to  aid  his  destiny. 

He  first  caused  l'e()dor's  half-hrother,  Dmitri,  to  be 
sent  with  his  mother  and  her  relations  to  Ouglitch,  where 
they  would  he  out  of  the  way.  He  also  caused  the  Metro- 
politan to  be  dismissed,  and  had  a  friend  appointed  in 
his  place,  lie  aroused  the  hiii^her  nobles  ag'ainst  him, 
and  then  made  an  effort  to  make  friends  with  the  smaller 
nobility. — at  the  exi)ense  of  the  ])Oor  ]>easants.  Accord- 
ingly to  law,  these  people  were  free;  that  is,  when  the  con- 
tract with  a  landowner  cx])ired,  they  could  move  where 
they  pleased,  and  the  large  owners  could  offer  better 
terms  than   those   who  held  small  estates.      lUit   without 

129 


I30 


labor,  the  land  was  worthless  and  Russia,  at  the  time,  was 
so  sparsely  populated,  that  every  hand  counted.  The 
object  of  the  government  was  not  to  open  up  new  lands, 
so  as  to  create  prosperity,  but  to  provide  for  its  current 
wants  by  seeing  that  the  taxes  were  paid,  and  that  the 
army  was  kept  up  to  its  standard.  How  could  the  men- 
at-arms,  that  is  the  small  nobility,  defray  their  own  ex- 
penses while  serving,  if  their  revenues  failed  from  lack 
of  labor?  Boris  Godounof,  therefore,  made  a  law  for- 
bidding peasants  to  go  from  one  estate  to  another.  They 
were  tied  to  the  ground,  and  this  was  the  first  step  to 
make  serfs  of  them.  The  peasants  did  object;  they  had 
been  accustomed  to  change  service  on  St.  George's  day, 
and  that  day  remained  for  many  years  one  of  deep  sor- 
row. There  was  no  rebellion,  but  a  great  many  fled,  and 
joined  the  Cossacks.  After  some  years  the  law  was 
changed  so  that  peasants  were  permitted  to  change  from 
one  small  estate  to  another. 

Another  change  under  Feodor's  reign  was  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  Patriarch  as  the  head  of  the  Greek  Church 
under  the  czar.  He  was  i)laced  above  the  several  Metro- 
politans, and  thus  the  Church  secured  more  unity. 

Feodor  had  no  heirs,  and  his  health  was  bad.  It  was, 
therefore,  to  young  Dmitri  at  Ouglitch  that  the  great 
nobles  looked  for  relief  from  Godounof's  tyranny.  In 
1 59 1,  this  man  sent  hired  assassins  to  Ouglitch  and  the 
youngest  son  of  Ivan  was  murdered.  Some  of  the  hire- 
lings were  arrested  by  the  people,  and  put  to  death. 
There  was  not  even  a  doubt  as  to  the  facts.  lUit  God- 
ounof ordered  an  investigation  by  his  own  friends ;  they 
declared  that  the  young  heir  had  committed  suicide  in  a 


131 


fit  of  insanity,  and  that  the  people  of  Ouglitch  had  put 
innocent  men  to  death.  The  assassination  of  Dmitri's 
relatives,  and  the  depopulation  of  Ouglitch  made  further 
inquiry  impossible. 

Stephen  Batory  who  had  worsted  Ivan  the  Terrible, 
died  in  1586,  and  the  throne  of  Poland  was  once  again 
vacant.  Godounof  tried  hard  to  have  Feodor  elected, 
but  the  Poles  feared  that  the  czar  might  attach  dieir 
kingdom  to  Moscow  like  a  sleeve  to  a  coat.  "  Besides, 
the  Roman  Catholic  electors  did  not  like  the  thought  of 
having  a  king  belonging  to  the  Greek  Church ;  last  of 
all,  money  counted  in  these  elections,  and  Godounof  was 
a  very  saving  man.  The  result  was  that  the  Prince  of 
Sweden  was  elected,  and  that  war  with  Sweden  broke 
out. 

The  Poles,  fearing  lest  Sweden  should  grow  too  power- 
ful, held  aloof;  as  a  consequence,  Russia  gained  back  the 
towns  which  had  been  lost  under  Ivan  the  Terrible. 
Godounof  made  an  eflFort  to  bring  about  a  war  between 
Poland  and  Sweden,  but  he  only  succeeded  in  arousing 
the  suspicion  and  dislike  of  both  countries. 

Feodor  died  in  1598;  with  him  the  house  of  Rurik,  the 
old  Norse  \'iking,  ceased  to  exist. 

By  trickery  and  knavery,  Boris  Godounof  was  elected 
czar  by  the  dounta  or  council  of  nobles,  a  body  presided 
over  by  his  friend  the  Patriarch,  and  containing  many 
of  his  partisans.  The  great  nobles,  many  of  whom  traced 
their  descent  to  Rurik,  objected  to  a  czar,  whom  they 
considered  and  called  an  upstart. ^  But  Boris  displayed 
cruelty  as  well  as  severity.  Feodor,  the  eldest  of  the 
noble  familv  of  the  Romanofs,  was  forced  to  become  a 


l.V 


monk  and  his  wife  a  nun.  He  took  the  name  of  Phila- 
rete,  and  she  that  of  Marfa. 

Godounof  did  reign  seven  years,  according  to  the 
wizard's  prediction,  but  it  was  a  stormy  time  for  Russia. 
A  young  adventurer  named  (iregory  Otrepief,  pretended 
that  he  was  the  murdered  Dmitri,  and  secured  a  large 
following.  The  troops  sent  against  him  "  had  no  hands 
to  fight  but  only  feet  to  fly."  At  Godounof's  death,  in 
1605,  he  confided  his  son  and  heir  to  a  favorite  named 
Basmanof,  who  turned  traitor,  joined  the  false  Dmitri, 
and  caused  Godounof's  widow  and  son  to  be  murdered. 
Otrepief,  who  lacked  neither  courage  nor  ability,  was 
made  czar,  but  he  reigned  little  over  a  month,  when  he, 
too,  was  murdered  by  a  band  of  nobles  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Chouiski.  This  man  seized  the  throne  in  1606. 
The  people  in  the  country,  owing  to  its  vast  extent  and 
the  poor  roads,  heard  of  Otrepief's  coronation,  his  death, 
and  the  succession  of  Chouiski  almost  at  the  same  time, 
and  anarchy  followed.  At  the  same  time  Russia  was  in- 
volved in  a  war  with  Poland,  at  the  time  when  a  second 
false  Dmitri  made  his  appearance.  The  Cossacks  and 
a  host  of  Polish  adventurers  joined  him,  and  he  laid  siege 
to  the  immensely  wealthy  Troitsa  monastery,  where  the 
monks  defended  themselves  for  sixteen  months,  and  he 
was  forced  to  withdraw.  AflFairs  came  to  such  a  pass 
that  the  people  of  Moscow  **  humbly  recjuested  the  czar 
to  abdicate,  because  he  was  not  successful,  and  also  be- 
cause he  was  to  blame  for  the  shedding  of  Christian  blood. 
Chouiski  was  forced  to  yield,  and  soon  after  entered  a 
monastery  as  a  monk. 

Two  candidates  appeared  for  the  vacant  throne ;  the 


133 


second  false  Dmitri  and  Vladislas,  the  second  son  of 
Sigismund,  King  of  Poland.  The  douma,  not  fancying 
the  idea  that  an  impostor  should  rule  over  them,  invited 
the  hetman  of  a  Polish  army  to  Moscow,  to  discuss  the 
other  candidate.  This  hetman  promised  in  name  of  the 
prince  to  maintain  the  Greek  Church  and  the  privileges 
of  the  three  orders,  nobles,  priests,  and  people,  and 
that  the  law-making  power  should  be  shared  by  the  czar 
and  the  douma ;  that  no  one  should  be  executed  without 
a  trial,  or  deprived  of  his  dignity  without  good  reason; 
and  finally,  that  Russians  might  go  abroad  to  be  educated 
if  they  so  desired.  Vladislas  was  then  elected  czar  on 
condition  that  he  should  enter  the  Greek  Church,  and  two 
envoys,  one  of  them  Philarete  Romanof  who  had  risen 
to  the  rank  of  Metropolitan,  left  for  the  Polish  camp  at 
Smolensk  to  complete  the  necessary  arrangements.  The 
douma  invited  the  hetman  to  occupy  the  kremlin  with 
his  shoulders.  He  did  so,  taking  the  late  Czar  Chouiski 
and  his  two  brothers  as  hostages. 

At  Smolensk  a  difficulty  occurred :  the  King  of  Poland 
wanted  the  Russian  throne  for  himself.  He  also  asked 
the  envoys  to  cede  Smolensk  to  Poland ;  they  refused, 
and  in  turn  asked  that  X'ladislas  should  leave  at  once 
for  Moscow.  The  king  refused  his  consent,  and  began 
to  use  money.  He  found  many  Russian  traitors  willing 
to  accept  it,  but  the  envoys  remained  firm. 

Soon  after  this,  the  second  false  Dmitri  died,  and  the 
people  began  to  show  an  interest  in  the  dispute  with 
Sigismund.  Leading  men  at  Moscow  and  Smolensk 
wrote  to  the  provinces,  begging  their  friends  not  to  recog- 
nize the  King  of  Poland  as  czar.  Men-at-arms  gathered, 
Sto.  of  Russi.\ — 9 


134 

and  when  an  army  of  them  drew  near  Moscow,  the  Poles 
fortified  the  Kremhn.  At  this  time  a  quarrel  arose  be- 
tween the  Polish  troops  and  the  people,  and  some  7,000 
persons  were  killed.  The  Russians  made  a  stand  in  the 
suburbs,  when  the  Poles  set  fire  to  the  city,  and  the 
greater  part  of  Moscow  was  burned. 

Sigismund  ordered  the  arrest  of  the  two  envovs  who 
were  taken  to  Marienburg  in  Prussia  under  escort. 
Smolensk  fell  soon  after  into  his  hands,  and  the  king 
returned  to  Warsaw  which  he  entered  in  triumph  with 
the  last  Czar  Chouiski  a  prisoner  in  his  train.  ]W  this 
time  the  Russians  were  aroused;  100,000  men-at-arms 
gathered  at  Moscow  and  besieged  the  Poles  in  the  Krem- 
lin. Meanwhile  Sweden  had  declared  war,  giving  as 
reason  the  election  of  \dadislas,  and  had  captured  the 
ports  on  the  Baltic.  The  monks  of  Troitsa,  whose  heroic 
defense  against  the  second  false  Dmitri  had  made  the 
convent  famous,  sent  letters  to  all  the  Russian  cities  bid- 
ding them  fight  for  their  country  and  religion.  When 
this  letter  was  read  in  public  at  Xishni  Novgorod,  a 
butcher,  Kouzma  Minine  spoke  up:  "If  we  wish  to 
save  the  Muscovite  Empire,"  he  said,  "  we  must  spare 
neither  our  lands  nor  our  goods;  let  us  sell  our  houses 
and  put  our  wives  and  children  out  to  service ;  let  us  seek 
a  man  who  will  fight  for  the  national  faith,  and  march 
under  his  banner."  He  set  the  example  by  giving  one- 
third  of  all  he  possessed,  and  others  followed.  Those 
who  refused  to  contribute  were  compelled  to  do  so. 
Minine  was  elected  treasurer;  he  accepted  on  condition 
that  his  orders  should  be  obeyed  without  delay.  Believ- 
ing that  the  leadership  should  be  given  to  a  noble,  Minine 


,1 


!• 


135 


went  to  Prince  Pojarski  who  lived  in  the  neighborhood. 
Pojarski  accepted  the  command,  and  ordered  three  days 
of  fasting  and  prayer.  The  streltsi  were  equipped  as  well 
as  the  men-at-arms ;  but  the  services  of  Cossacks  and 
foreign  mercenaries  were  refused. 

An  army  was  collected  and  marched  toward  Moscow, 
with  bishops  and  monks  carrying  holy  eikons  at  the  head ; 
at  laroslaf  they  were  reenforced  by  other  troops.  They 
laid  siege  to  the  Kremlin  ;  an  attempt  to  relieve  the  fort- 
ress by  the  Poles  was  defeated.  At  last  the  garrison  was 
forced  to  surrender.  Among  the  Russian  prisoners  who 
regained  their  liberty  was  a  fifteen-year-old  boy,  Michael 
Romanof,  the  son  of  Philaretc  and  Marfa. 

Sigismund  was  on  the  way  to  reenforce  the  garrison, 
but  hearing  of  its  surrender,  he  fell  back.  An  assembly 
was  convoked  to  elect  a  czar.  It  was  composed  of  dele- 
gates of  the  clergy,  the  nobles,  the  men-at-arms,  the  mer- 
chants, towns,  and  districts.  There  was  much  bickering, 
but  all  were  agreed  that  no  alien  should  be  presented. 
When  the  name  of  Michael  Romanof  was  called,  it  was 
received  with  enthusiasm,  and  he  was  declared  elected. 
(1613. )  The  delegates  remembered  the  relation  between 
his  family  and  Ivan  the  Terrible,  and  the  services  ren- 
dered by  his  father,  the  Metropolitan  Philarete.  There 
is  a  story  that  the  King  of  Poland,  wdien  he  heard  of 
Michael's  election,  tried  to  kidnap  him  at  Kostroma,  and 
that  a  peasant  guide  led  the  party  astray  on  a  dark  night. 
When  the  Poles  discovered  it.  he  was  struck  dead.  This 
is  the  subject  of  a  famous  opera  " ^\  Life  for  the  Czar." 

Russia's  efforts  to  resume  intercourse  with  Europe, 
which  during  the  Tartar  yoke  had  been  suspended,  were 


136 

continued  under  Godounof.  He  sent  an  ambassador  to 
Queen  Elizabeth  with  a  letter,  in  which  he  says:—'*  I 
have  learned  that  the  Queen  had  furnished  help  to  the 
Turks  against  the  Emperor  of  Germany.  We  are  as- 
tonished at  it,  as  to  act  thus  is  not  proper  for  Christian 
sovereigns;  and  you,  our  well-beloved  sister,  you  ought 
not  in  the  future  to  enter  into  relationships  of  friendship 
with  Mussulman  princes,  nor  to  help  them  in  any  way, 
whether  with  men  or  money ;  but  on  the  contrary  should 
desire  and  insist  that  all  the  great  Christian  potentates 
should  have  a  good  understanding,  union,  and  strong 
friendship,  and  unite  against  the  Mussulmans,  till  the 
hand  of  the  Christian  rise  and  that  of  the  Mussulman  is 
abased."  Judging  from  Elizabeth's  character,  it  is 
likely  that  she  shrugged  her  shoulders  as  she  read  this 
sermon.  During  the  period  of  Russia's  internal  troubles, 
and  owing  to  the  vacancy  of  the  throne,  the  relations  with 
Europe  were  again  suspended. 


I 


I 


X\'I— MICHAEL  EEODOROVITCH  OR  MICHAEL, 
THE  SON  OE  THEODORE,  THE  EIRST 

ROMAXOF. 

T7IFTEEN  years  of  anarchy  left  Russia  in  disorder. 
-■-  The  boyards  had  done  as  they  pleased  since  there 
was  no  one  to  control  them.  The  peasants  who  asked  for 
nothing  but  a  sim])lc  existence,  had  seen  their  crops 
trampled  under  foot,  and  their  homes  laid  in  ruins.  It 
needed  a  strong  hand  to  restore  order ;  more  than  could 
be  expected  from  a  fifteen-year-old  boy,  who  had  neither 
the  iron  will  of  Ivan  the  Terrible,  nor  the  advantage  of 
having  grown  up  with  the  conviction  that  he  was  the 
Master.  Besides,  although  his  election  had  been  regular, 
the  Don  Cossacks  and  others  refused  to  recognize  him 
as  the  czar.  On  the  other  hand,  the  ^^atriots  stood  by 
him.  But  the  conditions  were  such  that  a  foreigner  in 
Moscow  wrote  at  the  time :  "  Oh  that  God  would  open 
the  eyes  of  the  czar  as  He  opened  those  of  Ivan,  other- 
wise Muscovv  is  lost !  " 

There  was  no  money  in  the  treasury,  and  the  men-at- 
arms  demanded  pay  because  they  received  no  revenues 
from  their  ruined  estates.  The  czar  and  the  clergy 
wrote  to  the  Russian  towns  begging  them  for  money  and 
for  troops  to  help  the  government,  and  a  generous  re- 


'38 

sponse  "was  made.  The  peoj)le  of  the  provinces,  anxious 
to  see  law  and  order  restored,  rose  in  favor  of  the  czar, 
and  Astrakhan  sent  a  rebel  chief  to  prison.  He  was 
shortly  afterwards  tried  and  executed. 

While  the  people  were  thus  aidint;  the  j^overnnient,  no 
time  was  lost  in  dealinix  with  the  foreign  enemy.  In 
1614,  Michael  sent  envoys  to  Holland  to  request  help  in 
men  and  money.  The  Dutch  gave  a  small  sum,  regret- 
ting that  they  could  do  no  more  as  they  had  just  ended 
a  war  that  had  lasted  forty-one  years  (  1 568-1609)  ;  they 
promised  that  they  would  persuade  Sweden  to  come  to 
an  understanding  with  Russia.  Another  embassy  went 
to  James  I  of  England,  who  was  told  that  the  Poles  had 
murdered  British  merchants  and  plundered  their  ware- 
houses. This  was  a  falsehood,  because  the  envoys  knew 
that  the  outrage  had  been  committed  by  Cossacks  and  a 
Russian  mob,  but  they  hoped  that  the  king  would  not 
know  it.  James  did  not,  and  advanced  20,000  rubles. 
After  this  British  merchants  demanded  concessions  and 
privileges  in  Russia,  but  as  they  asked  too  much,  they 
received  nothing.  Sweden,  urged  by  England  and  Hol- 
land, concluded  with  Russia  the  Peace  of  Stolbovo  in 
161 7.  Sweden  received  an  indemnity  of  20,000  rubles, 
and  surrendered  Novgorod  and  other  towns. 

The  war  with  Poland  was  then  continued  more  vigor- 
ously, and  in  161 8  a  truce  of  fourteen  years  and  six 
months  was  arranged.  It  was  understood  that  this  was 
temporary,  because  the  King  of  Poland  still  claimed  the 
throne  of  Russia,  and  refused  to  recognize  Michael. 
lUit  the  prisoners  were  released  and  Philarete,  the  czar's 
father,  returned  to  Moscow,  where  his  presence  was  soon 


(»39) 


Michael  Feodorovitch 


I3S 


sponsc  was  niadc.  I1ic  pcoplo  of  the  ])rovinccs.  anxious 
to  sec  law  and  <>r(Kr  rcstnixd.  n>sc  in  favnr  of  llu-  czar, 
and  Astrakhan  sent  a  rehel  chief  to  prison.  He  was 
shortly  afterwards  tried  and  executed. 

While  the  people  were  thus  aiding  the  .i^nx  t-rnnicnt.  no 
time  was  lost  in  dealini^^  with  the  forcit^ni  enemv.  In 
I'">14.  Michael  sent  envoys  to  Ijolland  to  recpiest  help  in 
men  and  money.  The  Dutch  i^ave  a  small  sum.  resj^rct- 
tini^  that  they  c(>uld  do  no  more  as  tliev  had  just  ended 
a  war  that  had  lasted  forty-one  years  (  i^()>^-]f)aj  )  ;  thev 
pro?nised  that  they  would  persuade  Sweden  to  come  to 
an  understanding:  with  Ivussia.  Anotlier  emhassy  went 
to  James  I  of  Kn^riand.  who  was  told  that  the  Poles  had 
murdered  British  merchants  and  plundered  their  ware- 
houses. This  was  a  falsehood,  because  the  envoys  knew 
tliat  the  outra.i^e  had  been  committed  1)\  i.()>sacks  and  a 
Russian  nioh,  ])ut  they  hoped  that  the  kinij^  would  not 
know  it.  James  did  not,  and  advanced  Jo,ooo  rubles. 
.\tter  this  T.ritish  merchants  demanded  concessions  and 
privileges  in  Russia,  but  as  they  asked  too  much,  they 
received  nothini^.  Sweden.  uri^U'd  l)y  bjij^land  and  Hol- 
land, concluded  with  Russia  the  Peace  of  Stolbovo  in 
1^)17.  Sweden  received  an  indenmitv  of  20,000  rubles, 
and  surrendered  Xovu^^orod  and  other  towns. 

The  war  with  Poland  was  then  continued  nujre  vigor- 
ously, and  in  1618  a  truce  of  fourteen  years  and  six 
months  was  arran<^e(l.  It  was  understood  that  this  was 
temporary,  because  the  Kins;-  of  Poland  still  claimed  the 
throne  of  Russia,  and  refused  to  recomiize  Michael. 
I  hit  the  prisoners  were  released  and  Philan-tiv  the  czar's 
father,  returned  to  Moscow,  where  hi.^  pre.^e^ce  was  suuu 


(139) 


Michael  Feod<»rovitch 


I40 

felt  by  the  nobles.  The  most  independent  were  arrested 
and  sent  into  exile.  So  long  as  Philarete  assisted  his 
son,  there  was  no  disorder. 

In  1618,  the  great  struggle  between  Protestant  and 
Roman  Catholic  Europe  began  and  Sweden,  which  was 
to  take  such  a  glorious  part  in  it,  sought  Russia's  aid. 
Gustavus  wrote  to  Michael  telling  him  that  if  the  Cath- 
olic league  should  prevail,  the  Greek  Church  would  be 
in  danger.  *'  When  your  neighbor's  house  is  on  fire," 
he  wrote,  ''  you  must  bring  water  and  try  to  extinguish 
it,  to  guarantee  your  own  safety.  May  your  Czarian 
Majesty  help  your  neighbors  to  protect  yourself."  Sound 
as  the  advice  was,  Russia  had  enough  to  do  at  home. 
Sultan  Osman  of  Turkey  offered  an  alliance  against 
Poland,  when  Michael  convoked  the  Estates.  The  dep- 
uties beat  their  foreheads,"  and  implored  the  czar  "  to 
hold  himself  firm  for  the  holy  churches  of  God,  for  his 
czarian  honor,  and  for  their  own  country  against  the 
enemy.  The  men-at-arms  were  ready  to  fight,  and  the 
merchants  to  give  money."  The  war  was  postponed 
when  news  arrived  that  the  Turks  had  been  defeated. 

Sigismund  of  Poland  died  in  1632,  and  his  son  Vla- 
dislas  was  elected.  The  following  year  Philarete  died, 
and  the  nobles,  released  from  his  stern  supervision,  re- 
sumed their  former  behavior.  The  war  between  the  two 
neighbors  recommenced,  but  did  not  last  long.  When  a 
new  truce  was  concluded  Michael's  title  as  czar  was 
recognized  by  X'ladislas. 

It  was  entirely  the  fault  of  the  Polish  nobles  that 
Poland  lost  Lithuania  or  White  Russia.  The  only  ex- 
cuse that  can  be  offered,  is  the  spirit  of  religious  per- 


141 

secution  which  was  rampant  all  over  Europe  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  It  was  the  ceaseless  effort  of  the 
Poles  to  force  the  Lithuanians  from  the  Greek  into  the 
Roman  Church  that  drove  them  into  the  arms  of  Rus- 
sia ;  but  it  was  not  until  after  the  death  of  Michael,  in 
1645,  that  the  consequences  of  this  short-sighted  policy 
were  to  show. 

Michael  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  who  ascended  the 
throne  as  Alexis  Michaelovitch.  He  was  better  educated 
than  his  father  had  been  and  resembled  him  in  good  na- 
ture. He  had  been  taught  by  a  tutor  named  Morozof, 
who  during  thirty  years  exerted  a  great  intUience  over  his 
pupil.  When  Alexis  married  into  the  Miloslavski  fam- 
ily, its  members  secured  the  most  influential  positions, 
according  to  well-established  custom.  Morozof  did  not 
oppose  them  ;  instead  he  courted  and  married  the  czar- 
ina's sister,  and  thus  became  the  czar's  brother-in-law. 

The  wars  in  which  Russia  w-as  engaged  and  the 
necessity  of  maintaining  a  large  and  well-equipped  army, 
together  with  the  increasing  expenses  of  the  Court,  and 
above  all,  the  dishonest  practices  of  the  ofificials  ren- 
dered the  burden  of  taxation  so  unbearable,  that  several 
revolts  broke  out.  In  1648,  the  people  of  Moscow  rose 
and  demanded  the  surrender  of  a  judge  and  another  of- 
ficer, both  of  whom  were  notoriously  corrupt ;  the  two 
men  were  promptly  murdered.  Then  the  popular  fury 
turned  upon  Morozof,  who  would  have  suffered  the  same 
fate,  had  not  the  czar  helped  him  to  escape.  The  gov- 
ernment was  hel])less.  In  some  places,  such  as  Pskof, 
Novgorod,  and  elsewhere,  the  streltsi  joined  the  people, 
and  Russia  was  for  some  time  at  the  mercy  of  an  enemy. 


142 


It  was  fortunate  for  Russia  that  just  at  that  time,  Po- 
land had  serious  trouble  at  home.  A  Cossack,  owner  of 
a  large  estate,  educated  and  brave,  was  ill-treated  and 
imprisoned  by  a  Polish  landowner;  and  his  little  son  was 
publicl\-  whipped.  He  went  to  Warsaw  and  laid  his  com- 
plaint before  the  king.  Madislas  told  him  ])lainly  that 
the  nobles  were  beyond  his  control ;  then,  pointing  to  his 
sword,  he  asked  if  the  Cossack  could  not  help  himself. 
The  Cossack  took  the  hint,  went  home,  and  when  the 
Polish  landowners  tried  to  arrest  him,  he  fled  to  the 
Khan  of  the  Crimea,  interested  him  in  his  cause  and 
returned  at  the  head  of  a  Mussulman  army.  Lithuania 
rose  in  rebellion  against  Poland ;  the  governors  and  no- 
bles, and  especially  the  priests  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
were  hunted  down,  and  those  of  the  (ireek  Church  took 
revenge  for  recent  injuries  and  insults. 

Vladislas  died,  and  the  Diet  elected  his  brother  John 
Casimir.  He  tried  to  reduce  the  very  serious  rebellion 
by  promises,  but  there  was  too  deep  a  hatred  between  the 
two  churches.  Meanwhile  order  had  been  restored  in 
Russia,  when  the  people  of  Lithuania  wrote  to  the  czar 
begging  him  to  take  them  under  his  protection.  Alexis 
convoked  the  Estates,  told  them  that  he  had  been  insulted 
by  Poland,  and  that  the  Poles  were  persecuting  the  mem- 
bers of  the  (ireek  Church.  They  declared  in  favor  of 
war.  and  a  boyard  was  sent  to  Kief  to  receive  the  oath  of 
allegiance.  The  people  were  willing  ])rovided  their  liber- 
ties would  be  respected.  This  the  czar  promised.  He 
declared  that  the  privileges  of  the  Assembly  and  of  the 
towns  would  be  maintained,  that  only  natives  would  be 
employed  in  the  administration  and  in  taxation. 


H3 


Poland  was  now  sorely  pressed.  Charles  X  of  Sweden 
invaded  the  kingdom  and  took  two  of  its  capitals.  The 
Cossack  and  Lithuanians  entered  it  from  the  south,  and 
the  Czar  .Klexis  at  the  head  of  his  own  army  attacked  it 
on  the  east.  He  maintained  strict  discipline  so  that  the 
Polish  Governors  said,  *'  Moscow  makes  war  in  quite  a 
new  way,  and  conquers  the  people  by  the  clemency  and 
good-nature  of  the  czar.  The  towns  of  White  Russia 
opened  their  gates  to  his  army,  and  Smolensk  surrendered 
after  a  five  weeks'  siege.  The  Swedes  captured  War- 
saw, the  last  capital  of  the  misruled  kingdom. 

It  was  the  jealousy  of  its  enemies  that  saved  Poland 
this  time.  Alexis  entered  into  a  truce  and  attacked  Swe- 
den. This  war  was  carried  on  from  1656  until  1661, 
and  ended  by  the  peace  of  Cardis  whereby  neither  coun- 
try gained  any  advantage.  The  Poles,  seeing  the  dan- 
ger they  had  incurred,  rallied,  and  once  again  war  broke 
out  with  Russia.  It  was  carried  on  with  various  success 
until  both  countries  were  exhausted.  In  1661,  a  thirteen 
years'  truce  was  concluded,  whereby  Russia  restored 
Lithuania,  but  kept  Little  Russia  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Dnieper,  together  with  Kief  and  Smolensk. 

In  1668,  a  revolt  was  organized  by  the  Metropolitan 
of  Kief,  who  preferred  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople  to  that  of  Moscow.  As  a  result.  Little 
Russia  was  subject  to  all  the  horrors  of  war,  but  the 
Russian  power  prevailed  in  the  end.  Then  the  Cossacks 
of  the  Don  broke  out,  and  until  167 1  the  territory 
between  that  river  and  the  Volga  suflFered  terribly. 

Alexis'  reign  was  remarkable  for  the  introduction  of 
so-called  ''  reforms  "  in  the  Church,  which  were  confined 


144 


wholly  to  ceremonies  and  externals.  The  czar  supported 
the  "  reformer  "  Xicon,  and  those  who  did  not  agree 
with  him  were  called  religious  maduicn  and  suffered  per- 
secution. The  monasteries  near  Archangel  rebelled  and 
troops  were  sent  against  them  ;  but  it  was  eight  months 
before  the  sturdy  monks  ca])itulated. 

Alexis  continued  his  father's  efforts  to  reestablish  in- 
tercourse with  Western  Europe.  But  the  West  was  only 
recovering  from  the  terrible  Thirty  Years'  War,  so  that 
little  interest  was  shown. 

Alexis  had  married  twice.  From  the  first  marriage 
he  had  two  sons  Feodor  and  Ivan,  and  six  daughters; 
by  his  second  wife  he  had  one  son,  Peter,  and  two  daugh- 
ters. When  he  died,  in  1676,  he  was  succeeded  by  his 
eldest  son  Feodor. 

Feodor  Alexievitch,  the  third  czar  of  the  Romanof 
family,  reigned  only  six  years,  from  1676  to  1682.  It 
was  under  his  reign  that  a  truce  for  twenty  years  with 
Turkey,  restored  peace  to  White  Russia. 

Hitherto  Russia  had  suffered  from  the  rivalry  result- 
ing from  disputes  caused  by  precedence  of  birth ;  gen- 
erals had  lost  battles,  because  they  refused  to  serve 
under  men  whom  they  looked  upon  as  inferiors.  At  an 
assembly  of  the  higher  clergy,  it  was  resolved  to  burn 
the  Book  of  Rank,  and  the  czar  made  a  law  that  any  one 
disputing  about  his  rank,  should  lose  it  as  well  as  his 
property. 

To  protect  the  Greek  Church  from  dividing  into  sects, 
an  academy  was  founded  at  Moscow  where  the  Slav, 
Latin,  and  Greek  languages  were  taught. 


XVI  I—EARLY  YEARS  OF  PETER  THE  GREAT 

(PETER  ALEXIEVITCH) 

m 

FEODOR  died  childless,  and  should  have  been  suc- 
ceeded by  his  little  brother  Ivan,  but  the  child  was 
of  unsound  mind.  The  other  son  of  Alexis,  Peter,  was  the 
child  of  his  last  wife,  and  nine  years  old  at  the  time.  The 
question  about  the  succession  w^as  discussed  in  the  Coun- 
cil, and  decided  in  Peter's  favor,  and  his  mother  Natalia 
became  Regent.  Among  Peter's  half  sisters  was  one, 
Sophia,  twenty-five  years  old,  who  did  not  propose  to 
submit  to  this  decision.  She  took  part  in  Feodor's 
funeral,  in  defiance  of  the  law  which  forbade  women  to 
appear  in  public,  and  after  it  schemed  and  plotted  to 
form  a  party  in  her  favor.  A  rumor  was  spread  that 
the  czarina's  brother  had  seized  the  throne  and  that 
Ivan  had  been  murdered.  The  people  of  Moscow  rose, 
and  the  streltsi  marched  to  the  kremlin  where  the  ap- 
pearance of  Natalia  with  the  two  children  made  the  mob 
hesitate.  Unfortunately  Prince  Dolgorouki  addressed 
the  men  in  violent  language ;  they  seized  him  on  their 
pikes  and  killed  him.  They  then  stabbed  the  czarina's 
foster  father,  Matveef,  in  her  presence,  and  sacked  the 
palace,  murdering  many  of  its  inmates.  One  of  Natalia's 
brothers  was  thrown  out  of  a  window  and  caught  on 

MS 


146 


the  points  of  the  lances  of  the  streltsi  who  were  waiting 
below.  Natalia's  father  and  brother  were  taken  from 
her ;  Cyril,  the  father,  was  sent  to  a  monastery  and  her 
brother  Ivan  was  tortured  and  cut  to  pieces,  although 
the  czarina  went  on  her  knees  begging  for  his  life.  The 
streltsi  acted  under  authority  from  Sophia  when  they 
committed  these  outrages.  After  this  rioting  had  con- 
tinued seven  days,  the  streltsi  sent  their  commandant 
Khovanski  to  the  douma,  to  demand  that  there  should  be 
two  czars,  Ivan,  with  Peter  as  his  assistant.  The  douma 
did  not  fancy  the  idea, — hut  there  were  the  streltsi  with 
their  pikes,  and  they  carried  the  day. 

From  this  time  it  was  Sophia  who  was  the  real  czar. 
She  reigned  in  name  of  the  two  half-brothers,  and 
showed  herself  in  public,  insisting  upon  being  present  on 
every  occasion.  The  Russians  as  a  rule  are  not  fond  of 
new  fashions;  they  did  not  like  this,  and  objected  so 
strongly  that  Sophia  was  forced  to  give  way.  Thereafter 
the  two  young  czars  sat  in  public  on  the  throne,  but  it 
was  constructed  in  such  a  manner  that  Sophia  could  hear 
and  see  without  being  visible. 

She  shocked  every  Russian  by  her  manners  until  the 
streltsi  began  to  speak  of  her  as  *'  the  scandalous  person." 
They  hated  her  when  she  persecuted  the  raskohiik  or 
Old  Believers,  that  is,  the  men  who  objected  to  the  re- 
forms of  Xicon.  At  last  she  thought  that  it  was  not 
safe  for  her  to  remain  at  Moscow ;  she  fled  to  the  strong 
convent  at  Troitsa,  taking  with  her  the  czarina  and  the 
two  little  tsars,  and  there  summoned  the  men-at-arms 
whom  she  could  trust.  Khovanski,  the  commandant  of 
the  streltsi,  was  summoned  before  her;  he  was  arrested 


H7 


on  the  way,  and  put  to  death  with  his  son.  The  streltsi 
were  considering  another  revolt,  when  they  were  seized 
with  a  panic ;  instead  of  marching  upon  Troitsa,  they 
went  there  to  beg  her  pardon.  Sophia  forgave  them,  but 
their  leaders  were  executed. 

Sophia  trusted  the  government  to  two  favorites,  Prince 
Galitsyne  who  was  at  the  head  of  Foreign  Affairs,  and 
Chaklovity  whom  she  made  commandant  of  the  streltsi. 
Galitsyne  tried  hard  to  form  an  alliance  among  the 
Christian  powders  against  the  Turks  and  Tartars.  His 
scheme  failed  because  Louis  XIV  of  France  kept  the 
whole  of  Western  Europe  in  turmoil  by  his  constant  wars 
with  the  House  of  Austria,  and  the  Christian  princes  had 
to  look  after  their  owm  interests.  He  was  more  fortunate 
in  Poland  where  John  Sobieski  was  king.  A  treaty  of 
"  perpetual  "  peace  was  concluded  betw^een  Russia  and 
Poland  at  Androussovo,  in  1686,  and  an  alliance  was 
entered  into  against  the  Turks. 

In  1687,  an  army  of  100,000  Russians  and  50,000 
Cossacks  marched  against  the  Crimea.  The  Tartars  had 
burned  the  steppes,  and  the  Russians  suffered  such 
severe  hardships  that  they  were  forced  to  retreat.  The 
hetman  of  the  Cossacks  was  accused  of  treachery,  and 
deported  to  Siberia,  when  Mazeppa,  who  had  been 
his  secretary,  was  api)ointed  hetman.  In  the  spring  of 
1689,  the  Russians  under  Galitsyne  and  the  Cossacks 
under  Mazeppa  started  again  for  the  Crimea,  but  they 
had  no  better  success  than  before. 

Peter,  who  was  born  in  1673,  was  then  sixteen  years 
old,  but  being  tall  and  strongly  built,  he  looked  much 
older.     He  was  bright  and  anxious  to  learn,  and  at  an 


148 


149 


early  age  had  shown  that  he  possessed  a  will  of  his  own. 
He  had  read  much,  but  his  tutor,  a  man  named  Zorof, 
had  allowed  him  to  have  his  own  way,  and  when  the 
boy  grew  up  to  be  a  man,  he  made  that  tutor  "  the  arch- 
priest  of  fools."  When  the  boy  was  tired,  Zorof  would 
allow  him  to  put  his  work  aside,  and  would  read  to  him 
about  the  great  deeds  of  his  father  Alexis,  and  of  those 
of  Ivan  the  Terrible,  their  campaigns,  battles,  and  sieges ; 
how  they  endured  privations  better  than  the  common 
soldiers,  and  how  they  added  other  territory  to  Russia. 
He  also  learned  Latin,  German,  and  Dutch.  He  after- 
wards complained  that  his  education  was  neglected, 
because  he  was  allowed  to  do  as  he  pleased.  He  chose 
his  own  companions,  and  as  he  did  not  like  to  be  confined 
within  the  palace  grounds,  he  roamed  in  the  streets  and 
often  became  acquainted  with  men  whom  he  would  not 
have  met  in  the  palace,  Russians,  Dutch,  Swiss,  English, 
and  Germans.  His  usual  attendants  were  Boris  Galit- 
syne  and  other  young  nobles  with  whom  he  played  at 
soldier.  He  pressed  the  palace  servants  into  the  ranks 
and  had  them  drilled  in  European  tactics.  Peter  took 
lessons  in  geometry  and  fortification;  he  constructed 
small  forts  which  were  besieged  and  defended  by  the 
young  players.  Sometimes  the  game  became  earnest; 
blows  were  given  and  received,  when  Peter  took  his 
share  without  a  murmur,  even  when  he  was  wounded  as 
sometimes  happened. 

At  first  Peter  did  not  like  the  water;  no  Russian  does; 
but  he  mastered  his  dislike.  Once,  when  he  saw  a 
stranded  English  boat,  he  sent  for  a  boatbuilder  to  make 
him  a  sailboat  and  to  teach  him  how  to  manage  it.     He 


I 

I 


took  a  great  fancy  to  sailing,  and  often  took  his  boat  on 
the  Vaousa,  and  afterwards  on  Lake  Pereiaslaf,  to  the 
terror  of  his  mother.  Thus  Peter  grew  up,  healthy  in 
body  and  strong  of  mind,  until  his  ambitious  half-sister 
Sophia  began  to  think  what  would  become  of  her  when 
the  bov  should  be  czar.  She  had  stvled  herself  Autocrat 
of  all  the  Russias  and  did  not  like  the  idea  of  surrender- 
ing the  title.  Eor  some  time  she  was  appeased  when 
her  courtiers  told  her  that  the  boy  cared  for  nothing 
except  to  amuse  himself. 

When  he  was  sixteen  years  old,  Peter  asserted  himself. 
Sophia  had  ordered  a  triumphal  entry  for  Prince 
Galitsyne  and  the  army  of  the  Crimea,  when  Peter 
forbade  her  to  leave  the  palace.  She  paid  no  attention 
to  his  orders,  but  headed  the  procession  of  the  returned 
army.  Peter  saw  that  this  meant  war  to  the  knife,  and 
left  for  Preobajenskoe. 

As  soon  as  she  heard  of  this,  Sophia  determined  to 
seize  the  throne.  She  intended  to  attack  the  palace,  kill 
Peter's  friends  and  arrest  his  mother,  and  after  that  to 
deal  with  the  young  czar  as  circumstances  demanded. 
She  sent  for  the  commandant  of  the  streltsi  who  agreed 
to  sound  the  men.  He  told  them  that  Sophia's  life  was 
in  danger,  and  that  she  had  fled  to  a  convent.  The  latter 
part  of  the  story  was  true,  as  she  had  in  fact  retreated  to 
such  a  place,  from  which  she  sent  letters  to  the  streltsi  to 
come  to  her  rescue.  The  commandant  failed  to  secure 
more  than  500  men  ;  the  other  streltsi  told  him  that  there 
should  be  an  investigation. 

Two  of  the  streltsi  went  to  Peter  and  reported  to  him 
what  was  going  on,  whereupon  he  moved  to  the  famous 

Sto.  of  RrssiA — 10 


ISO 


Troitsa  monastery.  The  Patriarch,  forei|c:n  officers 
servinj^  in  the  army,  his  playmates,  and  even  a  ret^iment 
of  streltsi  came  to  liim  to  offer  their  services.  IVter 
issued  orders  for  the  arrest  of  Sophia's  favorite,  the 
commandant  of  the  mihtia.  She  he^^i^cd  the  Patriarch 
to  interfere  but  met  with  a  refusal.  The  commandant 
under  torture  confessed  the  plot,  and  was  beheaded. 
Sophia's  other  friends  were  arrested ;  some  were 
executed  while  others  were  sent  to  prison  ;  she  herself 
was  confined  in  the  convent  where  she  had  found  a 
retreat.  Peter  was  now  the  czar,  althoui^h  he  conducted 
the  government  in  his  own  name  and  in  that  of  his  weak- 
minded  brother  Ivan. 

If  Sophia  had  shocked  the  Russians  by  leaving"  the 
seclusion  of  the  women's  apartments,  Peter's  acts  were 
likely  to  astonish  them  still  more  and  to  give  offense. 
Rowing  in  a  boat,  instead  of  sitting  in  it  surrounded  by 
his  grandees ;  working  like  a  carpenter,  instead  of  merely 
giving  his  orders  through  a  courtier,  and  fighting  with 
foreigners  and  grooms,  were  acts  so  unlike  to  what  a 
czar  should  do,  that  Peter  made  a  host  of  enemies.  Little 
did  he  care !  Xo  sooner  was  he  free  to  do  as  he  pleased, 
than  he  rushed  off  to  Archangel,  the  only  port  Russia 
could  call  her  own,  and  there  he  saw  salt  water  for  the 
first  time.  He  mingled  freely  with  captains  of  the 
foreign  merchant  vessels  and  went  out  in  their  boats. 
On  one  occasion,  he  was  out  in  a  storm  and  came  near 
being  drowned ;  but  this  did  not  prevent  *'  Skipper  Peter 
Alexievitch,"  from  putting  out  to  sea  again.  C)nce  he 
piloted  three  Dutch  vessels.  The  young  czar  gave  orders 
to  construct  a  dockvard  and  to  have  boats  built. 


i;r 


Peter  longed  for  ports  on  an  open  sea,  a  sea  that 
would  not  freeze  in  winter.  There  were  three  which 
Russia  might  reasonably  hope  to  own  some  day,  the 
lialtic,  the  Black,  and  the  Caspian  Sea.  The  Baltic 
belonged  to  Sweden,  and  Peter  feared  difficulties  in  that 
direction  ;  but  the  P)lack  Sea  belonged  to  the  Turks,  and 
Peter  quite  understood  that  a  war  with  the  infidels  would 
be  popular  in  Russia.  He  wished  to  visit  Western 
Europe;  to  see  for  himself  the  wonders  of  which  he  had 
heard  foreigners  speak ;  but  he  made  up  his  mind  not  to 
go  until  he  could  appear  as  a  victorious  general. 

Thus  Peter  made  preparations  for  war  with  the  Khan 
of  the  Crimea.  He  did  not  command  his  army  ;  what  he 
wanted,  was  to  learn,  and  therefore  he  went  as  the  gunner 
Peter  Alexievitch.  That  did  not  prevent  him  from 
keeping  a  sharp  eye  on  his  generals.  Chief-engineer 
Jansen  received  a  sound  whipping  from  him  and  deserted 
to  the  enemv.  For  this  and  other  causes  he  was  com- 
pelled to  raise  the  siege  of  Azof  and  to  fall  back  to 
Russia.  His  mother  died  in  1694.  He  returned  to  Rus- 
sia in  1695,  and  notwithstanding  his  defeat,  he  ordered 
a  triumphal  entry  into  Moscow;  but  he  felt  very  sore. 
The  following  year,  i6(j6,  his  half-brother  Ivan  died,  and 
Peter  was  the  sole  Autocrat  of  all  the  Russias. 


(152) 


Peter  the  Great 


XVIII— PETER  THE  GREAT  AND  HIS  REIGX 


FAR  from  being  discouraged  by  his  defeat,  Peter  was 
more  than  ever  resolved  to  have  a  port  on  the 
Black  Sea.  He  introduced  reforms  in  the  army,  and 
while  doing  this,  he  ordered  a  fleet  of  boats  to  be  built 
on  the  Don.  and  set  26.000  men  to  work  on  them.  He 
also  sent  to  Holland  and  other  parts  of  Europe  for 
officers  and  gunners,  and  superintended  everything.  It 
was  at  this  time  that  he  wrote  to  Moscow  that,  '*  following 
the  command  God  gave  Adam,  he  was  earning  his  bread 
by  the  sweat  of  his  brow.  When  he  was  ready,  the  army 
and  the  boats  went  down  the  Don;  Azof  was  blockaded 
by  sea  and  by  land,  and  forced  to  capitulate.  When  the 
news  arrived  at  Moscow,  there  was  general  rejoicing, 
and  even  at  Warsaw  in  Poland  the  people  cheered  for 
the  czar.  The  army  returned  to  Moscow  under 
triumphal  arches,  the  generals  seated  in  magnificent 
sledges.  A  young  officer,  Peter  Alexievitch,  recently 
promoted  to  captain,  was  marching  in  the  ranks. 

Peter  wished  to  make  of  Azof  a  Russian  town  in  the 
shortest  time  possible.  He  secured  from  the  douma  an 
order  by  which  three  thousand  families  were  moved  to 
that  port,  and  streltsi  were  dispatched  to  garrison  it. 
The    czar    wanted    a    naval    force,    and    moved    by    his 

»53 


■ 


(15-;) 


Peter  the  Great 


I 


X\  III—PFTKR  THK  (;RKAT  AXD  MIS  RRKA' 

"^AR  from  bcini^  discourai^cd  by  his  defeat,  IVter  was 
more  than  ever  resolved  to  have  a  jjoit  on  tlie 
r.lack  Sea.  Jle  intro(hice(l  reforms  in  the  army,  and 
while  doini,^  this,  he  ordered  a  Heet  of  h(^ats  to  he  built 
on  the  Don.  and  set  2(),ouu  men  to  work  on  them.  He 
also  sent  to  Holland  and  other  ])arts  of  Kuroi)e  for 
officers  and  i^anmers,  and  su])erinten(led  everythin.q".  It 
was  at  this  time  that  he  wrote  to  Moscow  that.  **  folhnvini,^ 
the  command  ( io(l  «^^ave  Adam,  he  was  earnini^-  his  bread 
l)v  the  sweat  of  his  brow.  W  hen  he  was  ready,  the  army 
and  the  boats  went  down  the  Don;  .\zof  was  blockaded 
bv  sea  an<l  by  land,  and  forced  to  caj^itulate.  When  the 
news  arrived  at  Moscow,  there  was  i^eneral  rejoicin.u:, 
and  even  .at  Warsaw  in  Poland  the  people  cheered  for 
tile  czar.  Tin  army  retm-ned  to  Moscow  under 
triumphal  arches,  the  i^enerals  seated  in  mai^nit'icent 
sledi;es.  \  \«>un.i^  officer,  Peter  Alexievilch,  recently 
promoted  to  cai)tain,  was  marchini^  in  the  ranks. 

Peter  wished  to  make  of  Azof  a  Russian  town  in  the 
shortest  time  pcjssible.  He  secured  from  the  douma  an 
order  l)v  which  three  thousand  families  were  moved  to 
that  ])ort.  and  streltsi  were  dispatched  to  i^arrison  it. 
The    czar    wanted    a    naval    foriw    and    moved    by    his 

'53 


154 

ener^v,  the  Patriarch,  the  prelates,  and  the  monasteries 
offered  to  [jive  one  ship  for  every  5,000  serfs  owned  by 
them.  This  example  was  followed  by  nobles,  officials, 
and  merchants,  and  once  more  Peter  sent  to  the  west  for 
competent  men  to  help  build  them.  At  the  same  time 
fiftv  voung  nobles  were  dispatched  to  \'enice  to  learn 
shipbuilding. 

When  he  was  seventeen  years  old,  Peter  had  married 
Eudoxia  Lapoukine,  whose  relatives  abhorred  all  that  was 
new ;  Peter's  wife  shared  their  sentiments,  so  that  his 
home  life  was  far  from  hai)py.  He  had  a  son  by  her. 
named  Alexis;  after  the  fall  of  Azof,  Peter  secured  a 
divorce,  an  act  unheard  of  in  Russia,  where  she  remained 
czarina  in  the  eyes  of  the  people,  l^.usy  as  he  was,  IVter 
left  his  son  and  heir  in  charge  of  his  divorced  wife,  while 
he  was  making  preparations  for  the  long  expected  visit 
to  the  west  of  Europe. 

He  determined  that  an  embassy  should  be  sent,  and 

that   it   should   be   worthy   of   Russia.     Accordingly   he 

appointed  the   Swiss   Lafort  and   two  Russian  generals 

"  the   great   Ambassadors   of   the   Czar."     Among   their 

retinue  composed  of  two  hundred  and  seventy  persons, 

was   a   young   man    Peter    Mikhailof,   better   known   as 

Peter  Alexievitch.     When   the   embassy   came  to   Riga, 

that  voung  man  was  insulted  by  the  governor.     Peter 

said  nothing,  but  made  a  note  of  it  for  future  use.     At 

Konigsberg,    "Mr.    Peter    Mikhailof"    was    appointed 

master  of   artillery  by  the   Prussian   Colonel   Stern f eld. 

The  progress  of  the  embassy  was  too  slow   for    Peter 

who  had  an  object  in  view.     He  w^ent  ahead  to  Holland 

where  he  hired  a  room  from  a  blacksmith  at  Zaandam, 


155 

bought  a  workman's  suit,  and  went  to  work  in  a  dockyard. 
He  often  visited  Amsterdam  where  his  good  nature  and 
passion  to  learn  gained  him  the  good-will  of  the  people. 
Peter  then  crossed  over  to  London  where  he  spent  three 
months.  Competent  men  of  every  profession  and  trade 
were  engaged  by  him  everywhere.  Returning  to  Holland, 
his  ship  was  caught  in  a  violent  gale,  which  frightened 
even  the  sailors.  Peter  kept  cool,  and,  smiling,  asked 
them  if  they  "  had  ever  heard  of  a  Czar  of  Russia  who 
was  drowned  in  the  North  Sea  ?  " 

Peter  did  not  forget  Russia's  political  interests.  He 
talked  with  William  of  Orange,  the  great  opponent  of 
Louis  XI\',  and  with  other  influential  men,  but  he  did 
not  visit  the  court  of  Prance.  After  satisfying  his 
curiosity,  he  went  to  X'ienna  where  he  intended  to  study 
strategy ;  but  his  stay  was  cut  short  by  bad  news  from 

home. 

Peter  had  met  with  a  sullen,  obstinate  opposition  in 
Russia.  It  was  led  by  the  priests  who  said,  and  perhaps 
believed,  that  Peter  was  the  anti-Christ.  It  was  a  cause 
for  complaint  that  Peter  often  wore  clothes  of  a  German 
fashion  ;  was  the  Russian  costume  not  good  enough  for 
him?  Again,  why  did  he  not  devote  his  time  to  war,  as 
the  other  czars  done?  He  had  made  a  bargain  with 
P>ritish  merchants  to  import  tobacco  into  Russia;  what 
did  the  Russians  want  with  this  "sacrilegious  smell?" 
lUit  the  climax  was  that  a  Ccar  of  the  Russias  should 
leave  Holv  Russia  to  go  among  heretics  and  heathens. 
Geography  was  not  studied  in  the  czar's  empire,  and  all 
nations  on  earth  were  thought  to  belong  to  eidier  of  the 
two  classes. 


/ 


154 

cnerq-y,  the  Patriarch,  the  prelates,  and  the  monasteries 
offered  to  ^nve  one  sliip  for  every  5.0(X)  serfs  owned  by 
them.  This  example  was  followed  by  nobles,  officials, 
and  merchants,  and  once  more  IVter  sent  to  the  west  for 
competent  men  to  help  build  them.  At  the  same  time 
fifty  young  nobles  were  dispatched  to  X'enice  to  learn 

shipbuilding. 

When  he  was  seventeen  years  old,  Peter  had  married 
Eudoxia  Lapoukine,  whose  relatives  abhorred  all  that  was 
new;  Peter's  wife  shared  their  sentiments,  so  that  his 
home  life  w^as  far  from  happy,  lie  had  a  son  by  her. 
named  Alexis;  after  the  fall  of  Azof,  Peter  secured  a 
divorce,  an  act  unheard  of  in  Russia,  where  .she  remained 
czarina  in  the  eyes  of  the  people.  lUisy  as  he  was,  Peter 
left  his  son  and  heir  in  charge  of  his  divorced  wife,  while 
he  was  making  preparations  for  the  long  expected  visit 
to  the  west  of  Europe. 

lie  determined  that  an  embassy  should  be  sent,  and 
that   it   should   be   worthy   of    Russia.     .Accordingly   he 
appointed  the   Swiss   Lafort  and  two   Russian  generals 
"  the   great    Ambassadors   of   the   Czar."      Among   their 
retinue  composed  of  two  hundred  and  seventy  ])ersons. 
was   a   young   man    Peter    Mikhailof,    b(>tt(T   known   as 
Peter  Alexievitch.      When   the   embassy    came   lo   Riga, 
that  young  man   was  insulted  by  the  governor.     Peter 
said  nothing,  but  made  a  note  of  it  for  tntnre  use.     At 
Konigsberg,    "Mr.     Peter    Mikhailof"    was    appointed 
master  of  artillery  by  the   Prussian   Colonel   Sternfeld. 
The  progress  of  the  embassy  was  too  slow   for   Peter 
w^ho  had  an  object  in  view.     He  went  'ahead  to  Holland 
where  he  hired  a  room  from  a  blacksmith  at  Zaandani, 


155 

bought  a  workman's  suit,  and  went  to  work  in  a  dockyard. 
He  often  visited  Amsterdam  where  his  good  nature  and 
]:)assion  to  learn  gained  him  the  good-will  of  the  people. 
Peter  then  crossed  over  to  London  where  he  spent  three 
months.  Competent  men  of  every  ])rofession  and  trade 
were  engaged  by  him  everywhere.  Returning  to  Holland, 
his  ship  was  caught  in  a  violent  gale,  which  frightened 
even  the  sailors.  Peter  kept  cool,  and,  smiling,  asked 
them  if  they  *'  had  ever  heard  of  a  Czar  of  Russia  who 
was  drowned  in  the  North  Sea?" 

Peter  did  not  forget  Russia's  political  interests.  He 
talked  with  William  of  Orange,  the  great  opponent  of 
Louis  XI\",  and  with  other  influential  men,  but  he  did 
not  visit  the  court  of  hYance.  After  satisfying  his 
curiosity,  he  went  to  X'ienna  where  he  intended  to  study 
strategy;  but  his  stay  was  cut  short  by  bad  news  from 

home. 

Peter  had  met  with  a  sullen,  obstinate  opposition  in 
Russia.  It  was  led  by  the  i)riests  who  said,  and  perhaps 
believed,  that  Peter  was  the  anti-Christ.  It  was  a  cause 
for  complaint  that  Peter  often  wore  clothes  of  a  German 
fashion  ;  was  the  I^ussian  costume  not  good  enough  for 
him?  Again,  why  did  he  not  devote  his  time  to  war,  as 
the  odier  czars  (k)ne?  He  had  made  a  bargain  with 
r»ritish  merchants  to  import  tobacco  into  Russia;  what 
did  the  Russians  want  with  this  "sacrilegious  smell?" 
r.ut  the  climax  was  that  a  Ccar  of  the  Russias  should 
leave  Hob  Russia  to  go  among  heretics  ..nd  heathens, 
(ieography  was  not  studied  in  the  czar's  empire,  and  all 
nations  on  earth  were  thought  to  belong  to  eidier  of  the 
two  clashes. 


\ 


156 


The  trouble  began  among  the  streltsi  who  had  been 
sent  to  Azof.     These  citizen  soldiers  looked  upon  their 
destination  at  the  other  end  of  the  empire  as  an  exile,— 
which   it  may  have  been.     Two  hundred   deserted  and 
made  their  way  back  to  Moscow  and  their  families;  they 
were  promptly  hunted   down.     When  they   returned  to 
their  regiments,  they  brought  with  them  a  secret  proc- 
lamation   from    Sophia.      "  Vou    suffer,"    she    declared, 
"but    it    will    grow    worse   still.      March    on    Moscow! 
What  are  you  waiting  for?     There  is  no  news  of  the 
czar!^'     There  was  a  rumor  that   Peter  was  dead  and 
that  his  son  Alexis  had  been  murdered  by  the  boyards. 
Four  regiments   revolted  and  left  the  ranks.     Generals 
Gordon  and   Schein   went  after  them  with   the   regular 
troops,  and  after  overtaking  the  nuitineers,  tried  to  bring 
them  to  reason.     In  reply  they  stated  their  grievances 
and   persisted   in   their   determination   not   to   return   to 
duty.     The  government  troops  then  fired  and  scattered 
the  streltsi.     A  number  of  them  were  arrested,  tortured, 
and  executed. 

At  this  time  Peter  returned,  furious  at  what  had 
happened.  He  was  determined  to  strike  at  the  head  of 
the  opposition,  the  Russians  who  openly  denounced  in- 
novations. He  ordered  that  the  face  must  be  shaved. 
This  was  hitting  every  adult  Russian  in  a  tender  spot, 
because  the  shaving  of  the  face  was  considered  in  the 
light  of  a  blasphemy.  He  began  to  enforce  his  orders 
at  his  court,  sometimes  acting  as  a  barber  himself,  when 
he  was  none  too  gentle.  A  number  of  gibbets  erected 
on  the  Red  Square,  reminded  the  bearded  noble  that  the 
choice  lay  between  losing  the  beard  or  the  head.     The 


157 


Patriarch  appealed  to  Peter,  a  holy  eikon  of  the  Virgin 
in  his  hand.  '*  Why  did  you  bring  out  the  holy  eikon?  " 
asked  the  czar.  "  Withdraw  and  restore  it  to  its  place. 
Know  that  I  venerate  God  and  His  mother  as  much  as 
you  do,  but  know  also  that  it  is  my  duty  to  protect  the 
people  and  to  punish  the  rebels." 

The  gibbets  did  not  stand  as  an  idle  threat.  The 
Austrian  Minister  Korb  was  a  witness  of  the  executions, 
which  he  describes  thus:  "Five  rebel  heads  had  been 
sent  into  the  dust  by  blows  from  an  ax  wielded  by  the 
noblest  hand  in  Russia."  Thus  Peter  did  not  hesitate 
to  be  his  own  executioner.  It  was  like  him  to  do  his 
own  work,  regardless  of  what  the  people  might  think.  A 
thousand  men  were  sent  to  a  gory  grave,  by  the  highest 
officers  of  the  court ;  the  executions  lasted  a  week.  The 
funeral  of  the  executed  was  forbidden.  Bodies  were 
seen  dangling  from  the  walls  of  the  kremlin  for  five 
months,  and  for  the  same  length  of  time,  the  corpses 
of  some  of  the  streltsi  hung  from  the  bars  of  Sophia's 
prison,  clutching  the  secret  proclamation.  Peter's 
divorced  wife  had  joined  Sophia's  party  ;  the  two  ladies 
had  their  head  shaved  and  were  confined  in  convents. 
The  streltsi  were  dissolved  and  replaced  by  regular 
troops. 

Peter  then  turned  upon  the  Cossacks  of  the  Don,  who 
had  shown  greater  independence  than  pleased  him. 
Prince  Dolgorouki  to  whom  the  task  was  confided  of 
bringing  them  to  order,  wrote  to  the  czar  after  he  had 
destroyed  the  Cossack  cam]):  "The  ciiief  rebels  and 
traitors  have  been  hung ;  of  the  others,  one  out  of  every 
ten ;  and  all  these  dead  malefactors  have  been  laid  on 


i:^8 


159 


rafts,  and  turned  into  the  river,  to  strike  terror  into  the 
hearts  of  the  Don  people  and  to  cause  them  to  repent." 

Mazeppa,  as  we  have  seen,  was  at  this  time  hetman  of 
the  Cossacks  of  Little  Russia.  In  his  youth  he  had  been 
a  page  of  John  Casimir,  king  of  Poland ;  it  was  then 
that  he  had  that  terrible  adventure  which  is  connected 
indelibly  with  his  name.  After  he  was  cut  loose  from 
the  back  of  the  unbroken  horse  that  had  carried  him  in 
the  steppes,  he  entered  among  the  Cossacks,  and  rose 
from  the  ranks  by  betraying  every  chief  who  helped 
him.  Although  it  was  Sophia  who  made  him  hetman, 
he  was  among  the  first  to  declare  for  IVter.  His  enemies, 
of  whom  he  had  many,  accused  him  before  the  czar,  but 
Peter  admired  him,  and  delivered  his  accusers  up  to 
him;  they  did  not  live  long  after  Mazeppa  had  them  in 
his  power. 

It  was  Mazeppa's  scheme  to  establish  an  independent 
kingdom,  he  had  the  support  of  the  Cossacks  who  did 
not  care  to  work  but  i)referre(l  to  be  sui)ported  by  the 
people.  The  industrious  classes  longed  to  get  rid  of 
this  burden,  and  looked  toward  the  czar  to  sci  them  free. 
The  tribute  which  Little  Russia  paid  to  .Moscow  was 
quite  heavy,  and  when  it  was  rumored  that  Peter  was 
going  to  war  with  Sweden,  Mazeppa  thought  this  was 
an  opportunity  to  carry  out  his  scheme.  He  entered  into 
negotiations  with  Stanislas  Lecszinski  whom  Swedish  in- 
fluence had  ])lace(l  upon  the  throne  of  Poland.  Peter 
was  informed  of  this  in  detail,  btit  he  did  not  credit  it,  be- 
headed one  of  his  informants,  and  the  others  were  tor- 
tured and  sent  to  Siberia. 

The  war  broke  out,  Charles  XII,  the  romantic  king 


of  Sweden  arrived  in  the  neigh])orhood  of  Little  Russia, 
and  IVter  called  on  Mazeppa  to  join  the  Russian  army 
with  his  Cossacks,  lie  pretended  to  be  dying,  but  when 
the  two  hostile  armies  were  drawing  close,  he  crossed 
the  Desna  with  his  most  trusted  Cossacks  to  join  the 
Swedes.  Peter's  eyes  were  o])ened ;  he  gave  orders  to 
his  general  Menzikoff  to  take  and  sack  Mazeppa's  capital. 
This  was  done  and  Mazeppa's  friend?,  who  had  remained 
behind,  were  executed.  Mazeppa  himself  reached  the 
Swedish  camp.  He  was  comi)elled  to  seek  safety  in 
Turkev.  where  he  died  miserably  at  liCnder.  His  terri- 
tory was  annexed  to  Russia,  the  Cossacks  lost  all  their 
privileges,  and  1,200  of  them  were  set  to  work  on  the 
Ladoga  canal. 

It  was  in  1700  that  Peter,  after  concluding  an  alliance 
with  Poland,  determined  to  declare  war  against  Sweden 
where  young  Charles  XII  had  recently  succeeded  to  the 
throne.  Attacked  at  the  same  time  by  Russia,  Poland, 
and  Denmark,  this  young  hero  invaded  the  last-named 
country  and  compelled  its  king  to  conclude  peace.  After 
relieving  Risra,  Charles  marched  into  Russia  at  the  head 
of  8.500  men,  and  on  the  30th  of  November  defeated  a 
Russian  army  of  63,000  men.  This  victory  proved  a 
misfortune,  because  it  inspired  the  King  of  Sweden  with 
contempt  for  Russian  soldiers  and  made  him  careless, 
whereas  Peter  worked  cheerfully  and  hard  to  profit  from 
the  lesson.  While  Charles  was  absent  in  Poland,  his 
army  was  twice  defeated. 

Each  of  the  two  antagonists  was  worthy  of  the  other's 
steel.  Both  were  brave,  but  Charles  was  impetuous, 
whereas    Peter   acted    upon    cool    judgment.     The    war 


i6o 


continued  until  1709  when  Charles  found  himself  in  Little 
Russia,  far  away  from  su])plies  and  reenforcements,  in  a 
Russian  winter  which  happened  to  he  exceptionally 
severe.  In  the  spring  he  laid  siege  to  Pultowa. 
The  czar  arrived  on  the  15th  of  June  with  60.000 
men;  Charles  had  29,000.  On  July  8,  1709,  the 
battle  of  Pultowa  was  fought  and  Charles  was  defeated ; 
he  narrowly  esca])ed  being  caj^tured.  With  Mazeppa 
and  the  Pole  Poniatowski,  he  made  his  way  across  the 
Turkish  frontier,  and  remained  until  17 13,  in  the  territory 
of  the  Sultan,  whom  he  finally  induced  to  declare  war 
against  Peter.  This  victory  gave  Peter  the  longed-for 
port  on  the  Baltic,  since  Sweden  was  no  longer  in  a 
condition  to  stop  him. 

What   induced   Sultan   Ahmed    III   to   risk   war   with 
Russia,  was  the  hope  of  regaining  Az(^f.     Peter,  on  the 
other  hand,  hoped  for  an  opportunity  to  capture  Con- 
stantinople,  the   Czargrad   of   former   times.      Tie  knew 
that  he  had  the  sympathy  of  the  many  Christians  of  the 
Greek  Church,  who  were  suffering  under  the  yoke  of  the 
Turk.     Trusting  upon  their  support,  Peter  arrived  on  the 
bank  of  the  Pruth  with  38,000  exhausted  soldiers.    There 
he    found    himself    surrounded    bv    200,000    Turks    and 
Tartars.     Peter  gained  a  slight  success,  but  not  of  suffi- 
cient importance  to  extricate  or  relieve  him.     h\'aring  an 
overwhelming   calamity,    Peter    was    ])repared    to    make 
immense    sacrifices    in    return    for    ])eace,    and    even    to 
surrender   Azof  and   the  territory   taken    from    Sweden, 
when  his  second  wife  Catherine  had  a  happy  thought. 
She  collected  all  the  money  and  jewels  in  the  Russian 
camp,  and  sent  them  as  a  present  to  the  drand  \'izier  in 


161 


command  of  the  enemy,  asking  at  the  same  time,  what 
terms  he  would  make.  They  were  found  unexpectedly 
reasonable :  the  surrender  of  Azof,  the  razing  of  the 
Russian  forts  erected  on  Turkish  territory,  and  that 
Charles  XII  should  be  free  to  return  to  Sweden.  Peter 
accepted  eagerly,  nuich  as  he  regretted  the  loss  of  Azof 
and  the  failure  of  his  schemes. 

In  17 1 3,  a  Russian  fleet  under  Admiral  Apraxine,  with 
Peter  serving  under  him  as  vice-admiral,  captured  several 
cities  on  the  I>altic,  and  a  Russian  force  entered  north 
Germany.  An  alliance  was  formed  against  him  and 
Peter  decided  to  make  an  attempt  at  an  alliance  with 
France.  In  17 18,  just  as  peace  was  being  concluded  with 
Charles  XII,  the  King  of  Sweden,  died  and  war  broke 
out  anew,  lasting  until  1721,  when,  by  the  Peace  of 
Nystad,  Sweden  surrendered  to  Russia  Livonia,  Esthonia, 
and  part  of  Finland.  Peter  had  his  way :  Russia  had 
open  ports. 

Peter  was  greatly  pleased,  and  Russia  rejoiced  with 
him.  The  senate  and  Holy  Synod  conferred  upon  him 
the  titles  of  **  the  Great,  the  Father  of  his  country,  and 
Emperor  of  all  the  Russias."  In  1722,  Peter  led  an 
expedition  to  the  Caspian  Sea.  He  captured  Baku  and 
five  other  important  towns.  He  died  three  years  later, 
in  1725. 


XIX— PETER  THE  GREAT  AND  HIS  TIME 

BEP^ORE  judging  Peter  the  Great,  the  time  in  which 
he  Hved,  and  the  conchtions  which  prevailed  should 
receive  careful  consideration.  Thnnii^hout  Western 
Europe,  in  France,  (iermany,  Spain,  and  Italy,  in  par- 
liamentary En<2:land  and  repuhlican  Holland,  the  people, 
that  is  the  masses,  toiled  early  and  late  for  the  privilege  of 
pavinf^  the  taxes;  all  immunities  were  reserved  for  the 
favored  few  composing  the  aristocracy. 

There  was  no  education  among  the  people,  with  the 
exception  perhaps  of  Holland,  then  still  a  power  of  the 
first  rank.  The  princii)le  was  that  the  interests  of  the 
individual  were  unworthy  of  consideration  by  the  side  of 
those  of  the  State.  That  was  the  case  in  France  as  well 
as  in  Russia.  Peter  inherited  the  idea  of  autocratic 
power,  and  his  travels  in  Europe  conveyed  to  him  nothing 
to  upset  or  contradict  that  idea.  He  cannot,  therefore, 
be  considered  in  the  light  of  a  tyrant.  He  acted,  so  far 
as  he  could  know,  within  his  prerogative,  and  did  his 
duty  as  he  saw  it. 

Russia,  with  a  thin  and  scattered  population  largely 
engaged  in  agriculture,  felt  no  impulse  toward  progress. 
The  moujik  lived  as  his  father  had  lived.  He  never 
came  in  contact  with  people  of  a  superior  civilization  who, 

162 


163 


bv  introducing  new  wants,  could  make  him  discontented 
with  his  lot.  Knowing  no  desire  but  to  satisfy  his 
phvsical  craving,  he  bore  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold 
with  equal  fortitude ;  the  soil  and  his  labor  provided  for 
his  subsistence.  A  life  so  sordid  must  either  brutalize 
man  or  feed  his  imagination  widi  the  unknown  and 
dreaded  forces  of  nature ;  superstition,  deep  and  strong, 
became  part  of  the  peasant's  existence.  It  is  genera- 
tions before  a  traditional  and  deep-rooted  belief  can  be 
eradicated. 

But  Peter  the  Great  gave  as  little  thought  to  the 
moujik  as  did  Louis  XIV  to  the  ])easants  of  France.  His 
influence  was  exerted  upon  the  boyards,  and  among  them 
the  opposition  was  the  stronger  as  they  had  been  imbued 
with  Asiatic  ideas  under  the  Tartar  yoke.  Here  the  great 
muscular  strength  of  Peter  rendered  him  great  service. 
He  did  not  hesitate  to  use  a  stick  upon  the  highest 
officials  any  more  than  Ivan  the  Terrible  had  used  his 
iron-tipped  staff.  Even  Menzikoff  was  chastized  in  this 
manner.  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia  did  the  same 
afterwards.  Nor  was  this  method  of  punishing  without 
its  use.  One  day  when  Peter  was  looking  over  the 
accounts  of  one  of  his  nobles,  he  proved  to  him  that, 
whereas  the  boyard  had  been  robbing  the  government,  he 
in  turn  had  been  robbed  by  his  steward.  The  czar  took 
the  noble  by  the  collar  and  applied  the  stick  with  a 
nuiscular  arm  and  great  vigor.  After  he  had  ])unished 
him  to  his  heart's  c(Mitent,  he  let  him  go,  saying,  "  Now 
you  had  better  go  find  your  steward  and  settle  accounts 
with  him." 

It  was  Peter's  purpose  to  make  the  Russians  again 


^T^^Ci^^ST^" 


164 


into  Europeans.  He  rightly  deemed  it  best  to  begin  with 
externals,  because  they  are  the  object  lessons  of  changes 
The  Russian  boyard  was  attached  to  the  long  caftan  or 
tunic  adopted  from  the  Tartars,  but  above  all  he  was 
devoted  to  the  hair  on  his  face.  The  beard  was  doomed 
.by  the  czar.  He  could  not  play  barber  to  all  his  subjects, 
but  he  imposed  a  heavy  tax  upon  unshaven  faces.  Owners 
of  beards  paid  from  thirty  to  one  hundred  rubles,  and 
moujiks  had  to  pay  two  pence  for  theirs  every  time  they 
entered  a  city  or  town. 

The  reform  which  had  the  most  lasting  influence  upon 
Russia,  w'as  the  abolition  of  the  landed  nobility  as  a 
separate  class.  They  would  be  known  as  "  tcliiii  "  or 
gentlemen,  and  any  one  who  entered  the  service  of  the 
government,  regardless  of  birth,  was  at  once  entitled  to 
be  classed  among  the  tchinoziiik.  Fn^ii  that  time  the 
terms  gentleman  and  officer,  became  synonymous.  Every 
service,  civil,  military,  naval,  or  ecclesiastic,  was  divided 
into  fourteen  grades.  The  lowest  grade  in  the  civil  ser- 
vice was  held  by  the  registrar  of  a  college,  the  highest 
by  the  Chancellor  of  the  Empire ;  the  cornet  was  at  the 
bottom,  the  field  marshal  at  the  top  in  the  army ;  and  the 
deacon  in  a  church  was  fourteen  degrees  removed  from 
the  Patriarch, — but  all  were  tchin. 

When,  in  1700,  the  Patriarch  Adrian  died,  the  dignity 
was  abolished  by  Peter  who  did  not  relish  the  idea  of  a 
rival  power  in  the  State.  Instead  he  created  the  Holy 
Synod  together  with  the  office  of  Superintendent  of  the 
Patriarchal  Throne.  He  gives  his  reasons  in  the  ukase 
wherein  the  change  is  announced.  "  The  sim])le  people," 
this  document  reads,  "  are  not  quick  to  seize  the  distinc- 


16; 


tion  between  the  spiritual  and  imperial  power ;  struck  with 
the  virtue  and  the  splendor  of  the  supreme  pastor  of  the 
Church,  they  imagine  that  he  is  a  second  sovereign,  equal 
and  even  su])erior  in  power  to  the  Autocrat." 

The  Holy  Synod  consisted  of  bishops  and  a  Procura- 
tor-general who  represented  the  czar  and  as  such  could 
veto  any  resolution.     This  official  was  often  a  general. 
Every  bishop  had  to  keep  a  school  in  his  palace,  and  the 
sons  of  priests  who  refused  to  attend  were  taken  as  sol- 
diers.    Autocrat  though  he  was,  Peter  dared  not  confis- 
cate the  property  of  the  monasteries,  but  he  forbade  any 
person  to  enter  a  convent  before  his  thirtieth  year.    The 
monks  were  ordered  to  work  at  some  trade,  or  to  teach 
in  the  schools  and  colleges.    At  this  time,  the  Protestant 
and  Catholic  churches  of  the  West  tried  to  make  con- 
verts, and  the  raskols  were  hostile  to  the  national  church. 
As  a  rule  Peter  did  not  favor  persecution ;  so  long  as 
the  church  did  not  interfere  with  his  authority,  there  was 
nothing  to  fear  from  him  ;  but  upon  the  slightest  suspicion 
his  heavy  hand  was  felt.     Thus,  in   17 10,  he  suddenly 
ordered  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits.     He  used  to  say: 
*'  God  has  given  the  czar  power  over  the  nations,  but 
Christ  alone  has  power  over  the  conscience  of  man." 
This  did  not  prevent  him  from  exacting  a  double  tax 
from  the  raskols  in  Moscow,  nor  from  punishing  cruelly 
any  Russian  converted  to  one  of  the  western  churches. 

The  great  mass  of  the  people  suflfered  severely  by 
Peter's  reforms.  The  peasants  as  tenants  of  the  large 
landowners  had  enjoyed  some  liberty  and  were  legally 
free  men ;  they  were  by  him  assigned  to  the  soil,  which 
they  were  not  permitted  to  leave.  Thus  they,  too,  passed 
Sto.  of  Russia — 11 


1 66 


into  serfdom.  If  the  proprietor  sold  the  estate,  the  rural 
population  went  with  it.  The  owners  paid  a  poll-tax  for 
their  serfs.  These  unfortunates  could  also  be  sold  with- 
out the  land,  but  the  czar  made  a  law  that  '*  If  the  sale 
cannot  be  abolished  completely,  serfs  must  be  sold  by 
families  without  separating-  husbands  from  wives,  parents 
from  children,  and  no  longer  like  cattle,  a  thincf  unheard 
of  in  the  whole  world." 

The  citizens  of  towns  were  divided  into  three  classes; 
to  the  first  class  belonged  bankers,  manufacturers,  rich 
merchants,  physicians,  chemists,  ca])italists,  jewelers, 
workers  in  metal,  and  artists ;  storekeepers  and  master 
mechanics  were  in  the  second  ;  all  other  people  belonged 
to  the  third,  h^oreigners  could  engage  in  business,  accfuire 
real  estate ;  but  they  could  not  depart  from  the  country 
without  paying  to  the  government  one  tenth  of  all  they 
possessed. 

Cities  and  towns  were  administered  by  burgomasters 
elected  by  the  citizens;  this  board  selected  its  own  presi- 
dent or  mayor.  If  an  important  (juestion  arose,  represent- 
atives of  the  first  two  classes  were  summoned  for 
consultation.  All  the  mayors  of  Russia  were  subject  to 
a  magistrate  selected  from  the  Council  of  St.  Petersburg, 
and  appointed  by  the  czar.  This  official  watched  over 
the  interests  of  commerce  and  agriculture,  settled  dis- 
putes between  citizens  and  burgomasters,  confirmed  local 
elections,  authorized  executions  when  a  death  sentence 
was  pronounced  by  provincial  authorities,  and  made 
reports  to  the  tsar. 

The  vo'icvodcs  or  governors  of  a  province  directed 
all   the   affairs   of   their   jurisdiction    and   disbursed   the 


I 


167 

revenues  as  they  thought  best.  "Help  yourself  first!" 
was  the  unwritten  law,  and  it  was  universally  obeyed. 
Peter  divided  his  empire  into  forty-three  provinces,  form- 
ing twelve  governments  each  under  a  viceroy  and  deputy, 
who  were  assisted  by  a  council  elected  by  the  nobles. 

The  courts  were  crude  and  medicxval,  but  not  more  so 
than  in  the  west  of  Europe.  Justice,  such  as  it  was, 
was  administered  by  the  General  Police  Inspector,  and  in 
large  cities  there  was  a  police  officer  for  every  ten  houses. 
Servants  wdio  failed  to  keep  the  house  front  clean  were 
punished  with  the  knout.  Peter  created  the  Bureau  of 
Information,  a  court  of  secret  police,  and  thus  inaugurated 
the  terrible  spy  system  which  still  disgraces  Russia. 

The  douma  was  abolished,  and  in  its  stead  Peter  created 
a  '*  Directory  Senate,"  which  could  meet  only  in  presence 
of  the  czar.  It  was  originally  composed  of  nine  members, 
but  it  w^as  afterwards  increased  and  at  last  embraced  the 
duties  of  the  Grand  Council,  the  High  Finance  Com- 
mittee, and  the  Supreme  Court.  A  fair  idea  of  the  moral 
and  mental  condition  of  Russia's  high  aristocracy,  may 
be  had  from  a  rule  made  by  Peter,  forbidding  the 
Senators  under  severe  penalties,  while  in  session  '  to  cry 
out,  to  beat  each  other,  or  to  call  one  another  thieves." 

Peter's  visits  to  the  west,  taught  him  the  value  of 
factories.  He  gave  every  possible  inducement  to  foreign 
capital  and  skill  to  come  to  Russia,  and  patronized 
home  industry  wherever  he  could,  as  by  purchasing  the 
uniforms  for  army  and  navy  from  recently  established 
mills.  Some  of  his  methods  appear  strange,  as,  for 
instance,  when  he  ordered  every  town  in  Russia  to  send 
a  stipulated  number  of  shoemakers  to  Moscow,  to  learn 


1 68 


their  trade.  Those  who  continued  to  work  in  the  old 
fashion,  were  severely  punished.  The  czar  would  have 
met  with  greater  success,  if  he  had  not  been  hampered  by 
the  cupidity  of  the  officials,  who  found  means  to  secure 
the  lion's  share  of  the  profits. 

Peter  discarded  the  old  Slavonic  ali)habet  and  intro- 
duced the  one  used  at  present.  St.  Petersburg  had  four 
printing  presses,  Moscow  two,  and  there  were  also  some 
at  Novgorod,  Tchernigof,  and  other  large  places.  The 
first  newspaper  in  Russia,  the  St.  Petersburg  Gazette, 
was  founded  by  him.  He  established,  in  1724,  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  in  imitation  of  the  institution  of 
that  name  of  Paris. 

St.  Petersburg  was  founded  in  1703.  It  was  far  from 
a  promising  site  for  a  new  capital,  the  dreary  wastes, 
dark  forests,  and  marshes  where  wild  ducks  and  geese 
found  a  favorite  feeding  place.  It  was  exposed  to  fre- 
quent floods,  and  piles  were  needed  before  a  building 
could  be  erected.  But  when  this  autocrat  had  made  up 
his  mind,  objections  were  brushed  aside.  Peter  collected 
40,000  men,  soldiers,  Cossacks,  Kalmucks,  Tartars  and 
such  natives  as  could  be  found,  and  put  them  to  work. 
At  first  he  provided  neither  tools  nor  shelter,  and  food 
was  often  scarce.  Thousands  of  workmen  died ; — what 
did  he  care?  Others  were  compelled  to  take  their  place. 
The  fortress  of  St.  Peter  and  Paul  arose  first;  the  czar 
himself  was  watching  the  progress  from  a  little  wooden 
house  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Neva.  Men  of  means 
were  forced  to  build  stone  houses  in  the  new  cai)ital. 
Swedish  prisoners  and  merchants  from  Novgorod  were 
invited  to  move  to  St.   Petersburg,  and  no  excuse  was 


I 


169 


admitted.  Goods  could  be  brought  only  by  boat,  and  no 
boat  was  allowed  to  land  unless  it  carried  a  certain  number 
of  white  stones  to  be  used  as  building  material.  He 
erected  churches,  and  ordered  that  he  should  be  buried 
in  the  Church  of  St.  Peter  and  Paul. 

Peter's  domestic  life,  as  we  have  seen,  was  not  happy. 
After  his  divorce  from  his  first  wife,  he  married  Catherine 
who,  in  1702,  had  been  made  prisoner  at  Marienburg. 
It  is  not  known  where  she  was  born,  but  she  was  probably 
a  native  of  Livonia,  and  was  a  servant  in  the  family  of 
Pastor  Gliick  and  engaged  to  be  married  to  a  Swedish 
dragoon.  She  became  the  property  of  Menzikoff  who 
gave  her  to  the  czar.  There  was  a  secret  marriage  which 
was  confirmed  by  a  public  ceremony  in  171 2,  in  reward 
for  her  services  at  Pultowa.  Peter  also  instituted  the 
Order  *'  For  Love  and  Fidelity,"  in  her  honor.  A  German 
princess  describes  her  thus : — ''  The  czarina  was  small 
and  clumsily  made,  very  much  tanned,  and  without  grace 
or  air  of  distinction.  You  had  only  to  see  her  to  know 
that  she  was  lowborn.  From  her  usual  costume  you 
would  have  taken  her  for  a  German  comedian.  Her  dress 
had  been  bought  at  a  secondhand  shop ;  it  was  very  old- 
fashioned,  and  covered  with  silver  and  dirt.  She  had  a 
dozen  orders,  and  as  many  portraits  of  saints  or  relics, 
fastened  all  down  her  dress,  in  such  a  way  that  when  she 
walked  you  would  have  thought  by  the  jingling  that  a 
mule  was  passing."  She  could  neither  read  nor  write, 
but  she  was  sharp,  had  natural  wit,  and  obtained  great 
influence  over  Peter.  Thev  had  two  sons,  Peter  and 
Paul,  who  died  in  childhood,  and  two  daughters,  Anne 
and  Elizabeth.   The  former  married  the  Duke  of  Holstein. 


]JO 


Alexis,  the  son  by  his  first  wife,  was  Peter's  heir.     He 
had  grown  to  be  a  young  man  before  Teter  realized  that 
the  result  of  all  his  efforts  depended  upon  his  successor, 
and  the  czar  began  to  pay  attention  to  his  son's  education 
when  it  was  too  late,  when  habits  had  been  formed.    The 
czarevitch  had  imbibed  the  prejudices  of  his  mother;  he 
was    narrow-minded,    lazy,    weak,    and    obstinate,    and 
associated  with  people  to  whom  Old  Russia   was  Holy 
Russia,    who   abhorred    reforms   of   every    kind.      Peter 
sent  him  to  travel  in  Germany,  but  the  prince  would  learn 
nothing.     Hi'>   father  warned  him  in   vli\    plain  terms. 
"  Disquiet  for  the  future,"  he  wrote  to  Alexis,  '*  destroys 
the  jov  caused  by  my  present  successes.     1  see  that  you 
despise  everything  that  can  make  you  worthy  to  reign 
after  me.    What  you  call  inabiHty,  I  call  rebellion,  for  you 
cannot  excuse  yourself  on  the  ground  of  the  weakness 
of  your  mind  and  the  state  of  your  health.     We  have 
struggled  from  obscurity  through  the  toil  of  war,  which 
has  taught  other  nations  to  know  and  respect  us,  and  yet 
you  will  not  even  hear  of  military  exercises.     If  you  d  > 
not  alter  your  conduct,  know  that  I  shall  de])rive  you  of 
my  succession.     I  have  not  spared,  and  I  shall  not  spare, 
my  own  life  for  my  country;  do  you  think  that  I  shall 
spare  yours?     I   would  rather  have  a  stranger   who  is 
worthy  for  my  heir,  than  a  good-for-nothing  member  of 

my  own  family." 

Alexis  should  have  known  that  his  father  was  in  terrible 
earnest,  yet  he  did  not  heed  the  warning.  When  Peter 
was  traveling  in  Western  Europe,  his  son  fled  to  Vienna, 
where  he  thought  that  he  should  be  safe.  Finding  that 
this  was  not  so,  he  went  to  the  Tyrol  and  afterwards  to 


171 


Naples,  but  his  father's  agents  traced  him  and  one  of 
them,  Tolstoi,  secured  an  interview  in  which  he  assured 
the  prince  of  his  father's  pardon,  and  finally  persuaded 
him  to  return  to  Moscow.     As  soon  as  he  arrived  there, 
he  was  arrested.     The  czar  convoked  the  three  Estates 
before   whom   he   accused   the   czarevitch.      Alexis   was 
forced  to  sign  his  resignation  of  the  Crown.     When  he 
was   being   examined,   probably   under  torture,   a   wide- 
spread   cons])iracy    was    revealed.     Peter    learned    also 
that  his  son  had  begged  the   Emperor  of  Austria   for 
armed  intervention,  that  he  had  negotiated  with  Sweden 
and  that  he  had  encouraged  a  mutiny  of  the  army  in 
Germany.      It   was   shown   that   his   divorced   wife   and 
several   prelates   were   in   the   plot.      Peter   crushed   his 
enemies.     Most  of  the  persons  involved  suffered  a  cruel 
death,  and  Alexis  himself,  after  being  punished  with  the 
knout,  was  sentenced  to  die.     Two  days  later  his  death 
was  announced.     It  appears  that  on  that  day,  the  heir  to 
the  throne  was  brought  before  a  court  composed  of  nine 
men  of  the  h idlest  rank  in  Russia  and  that  he  was  beaten 
with  a  knout  to  secure  further  confessions,  and  that  he 
exi)ired  under  the  torture.    Those  present  were  sworn  to 
secrecy,  and  kept  the  oath. 

Peter,  therefore,  had  no  male  heir.  Alexis,  however, 
had  left  a  son  Peter  by  Charlotte  of  Brunswick  whom  he 
married  against  his  will.  In  1723  the  czar  ordered 
Catherine  to  be  crowned  as  Empress.  He  had  established 
the  riHit  to  select  his  successor  but  failed  to  do  so,  owing 
to  his  sudden  death. 

The  following  description  of  Peter  the  Great  at  the 
age  of  forty,  is  given  by  a  Frenchman :  "  He  was  a  very 


172 


tall  man,  well  made  though  rather  thin,  his  face  some- 
what round,  with  a  broad  forehead,  beautiful  eyebrows, 
a  short  nose,  thick  at  the  end  ;  his  lips  were  rather  thick, 
his  skin  was  brown  and  ruddy.     He  had  splendid  eyes, 
large,  black,  piercing,  and   well-opened;  his  expression 
was  dignified  and  gracious  when  he  liked,  but  often  wild 
and  stern,  and  his  eyes,  and  indeed  his  whole  face,  were 
distorted   by    an   occasional    twitch    that   was    very    un- 
pleasant.     It   lasted  only   a   moment,   and   gave   him   a 
wandering  and  terrible  look,  when  he  was  himself  again. 
His  air  expressed  intellect,  thoughtfulness,  and  greatness, 
and  had  a  certain  grace  about  it.    He  wore  a  linen  collar, 
a  round  wig,  brown  and  unpowdered,  \>'hich  did  not  reach 
his    shoulders;    a    brown,    tight-fitting    coat    with    gold 
buttons,  a  vest,  trousers,  and  stockings,  and  neither  gloves 
nor  cuffs ;  the  star  of  his  order  on  his  coat,  and  the  ribbon 
underneath  it ;  his  coat  was  often  unbuttoned,  his  hat  lay 
on  the  table,  and  was  never  on  his  head,  even  out  of  doors. 
In  this  simplicity,  however  shabby  might  be  his  carriage 
or  scanty  his  suit,  his  natural  greatness  could  not  be 
mistaken." 


XX— THE  SUCCESSORS  OF  PETER  THE  GREAT. 


PETER'S  strong  hand  had  stifled  the  opposition  to  his 
reforms,  but  with  his  death  it  reappeared.  There 
were,  therefore,  two  parties  in  Russia :  the  men  who  had 
assisted  the  dead  czar,  MenzikofT,  Aproxine,  Tolstoi,  and 
others,  such  as  the  members  of  the  secret  Court  who  had 
witnessed  the  violent  death  of  Peter's  only  son.  They 
dreaded  the  succession  of  Peter's  grandson,  the  boy  who, 
although  only  twelve  years  old,  might  order  an  investi- 
gation of  his  father's  death.  These  men  held  the  power 
and  decided  that,  since  Catherine  had  been  crowned  as 
Empress,  it  was  she  who  should  succeed.  Thus  the  form- 
er maid  servant,  not  even  a  native  Russian,  became  Em- 
press of  all  the  Russias.  There  were  some  protests  in 
favor  of  Peter's  grandson,  but  they  were  disregarded. 

MenzikofT  who  was  the  cause  of  Catherine's  rise,  fan- 
cied himself  all-powerful,  and  there  was  jealousy  among 
Peter's  associates.  Menzikoff  sent  one  of  them,  Tolstoi, 
to  Siberia,  but  Catherine  would  not  consent  to  the  pun- 
ishment of  the  other  friends  of  the  late  czar.  She  was 
honest  in  carrying  out  Peter's  unfinished  i)rojects.  He 
had  planned  the  marriage  of  his  daughter  Anne  to  the 
Duke  of  Holstein:  the  wedding  took  place;  he  intended 
to  send  an  exploring  expedition  to  Kamtschatka;   she 

^7Z 


1/4 


/D 


enji^agecl  the  services  of  a  Danish  captain.  P>erin^,  who 
discovered  the  sea  and  strait  named  after  him.  The 
Academy  of  Sciences  was  opened  in  1726.  She,  how- 
ever, chani^ed  the  Senate  into  a  Secret  Hi^h  Council, 
which  met  under  tlie  presidency  of  the  empress. 

Catherine  (hed  in  1727,  and  on  her  deathhed  api)ointed 
Peter's  grandson,  then  fourteen  years  old,  as  her  succes- 
sor. In  case  of  his  death,  the  throne  would  go  to  Anne, 
and  next  to  Elizabeth.  During  his  minority  these  two 
daughters  assisted  by  the  Duke  of  Holstein,  Menzikoff, 
and  some  other  high  officers,  would  constitute  a  Board  of 
Regents. 

Menzikoff  had  taken  precautions.  He  had  obtained 
her  consent  that  the  young  heir,  Peter  II,  should  marry 
one  of  his  daughters,  a  young  lady  two  years  older  than 
the  boy.  He  showed,  in  his  letters  to  Peter,  that  he 
looked  upon  him  as  his  son.  He  also  intended  his  own 
son  to  marry  the  boy's  sister  Natalia.  There  was  one 
member  of  Peter  the  Great's  family  who  did  not  approve 
of  Menzikoff's  schemes,  Elizabeth,  the  young  czar's 
aunt,  then  seventeen  years  old.  Not  long  after  Cathe- 
rine's death,  Menzikoff  fell  ill;  he  was  compelled  to  keep 
to  his  rooms,  and  in  that  time  Elizabeth  roused  her 
nephew's  suspicions.  IVter  left  Menzikoff's  palace  and 
when  Catherine's  favorite  tried  to  resume  his  authority, 
he  was  arrested  and  exiled  to  his  estates.  Soon  after 
he  was  sent  to  Siberia,  where  he  died  two  years  later,  in 

1729. 

The  Dolgorouki  family  succeeded,  but  its  head  rnm- 
mitted  the  same  mistakes,  besides  showing  a  tendency  to 
undo  the  work  of  I'eter  the  Great.     The  young  czar  was 


o-rowincf  wearv  of  the  Dolgorouki  when,  in  January  1730, 
he  caught  cold  and  died  after  a  brief  illness. 

It  was  during  his  short  reign  that  Prussia,  Austria, 
and  Russia,  first  seriously  di.scussecl  the  partition  of  Po- 
land. A  treaty  was  signed  between  Prussia  and  Russia 
wherebv  the  two  powers  agreed  to  select  and  support  a 
candidate  for  the  throne  of  that  kingdom  which  was  to 
illustrate  the  truth  that  "  a  kingdom  divided  against  it- 
self cannot  exist." 

Peter's  death  left  Russia  without  a  male  heir.  There 
were,  as  we  have  seen,  two  daughters  from  his  marriage 
with  Catherine.  Anne,  who  had  married  the  Duke  of 
Holstein,  had  died  in  1728,  leaving  a  son  also  named 
Peter.  Elizabeth,  the  other  daughter,  was  in  St.  Peters- 
burg, quietly  engaged  in  establishing  a  party  of  her  own. 
There  were,  besides,  two  other  parties  having  claims 
upon  the  throne.  Ivan,  the  weak-minded  half-brother  of 
Peter  the  Great,  had  been  married  and  had  left  two 
(lau"-hters,  Anne,  Duchess  of  Courland,  and  Catherine, 
Duchess  of  Mecklenburg. 

The  decision  rested  with  the  Secret  High  Council. 
Dolijorouki's  claim,  that  Peter  II  had  made  a  secret  will 
leaving  the  throne  to  his  bride,  was  laughed  to  scorn. 
The  members  of  the  High  Council  saw  an  opportunity 
to  secure  most  of  the  autocratic  power  for  themselves, 
and  resolved  to  offer  the  throne  to  Anne  of  Courland, 
provided  that  she  subscribed  to  the  following  conditions: 
That  the  Secret  High  Council  should  always  consist  of 
eight  members,  all  vacancies  to  be  filled  by  themselves; 
that  she  could  make  neither  war  nor  peace,  nor  appoint 
an  officer  above  the  rank  of  colonel,  without  the  consent 


of  the  Council ;  that  she  could  not  condemn  a  noble  to 
death,  nor  confiscate  his  property,  without  a  trial;  and 
that  she  could  neither  appoint  a  successor,  nor  marry 
again  without  the  approval  of  the  Council.  She  was  also 
to  siirn  an  atrreement  wherehv  she  would  forfeit  the  crown 
"  in  case  of  my  ceasing  to  observe  these  engagements." 
The  Council  also  decided  upon  moving  the  capital  back 
to  Moscow. 

This  might  have  been  the  beginning  of  a  more  liberal 
government  for  Russia,  since  it  diminished  the  power  of 
the  czar  and  the  people  would  have  benefited  by  the  in- 
creased rights  of  the  nobles,  as  was  the  case  in  England. 
It   was   the   nobility   who   objected,    from    fear   that   the 
power  might  be  absorbed  in  the  families  of  the  Council 
members.    Anne  of  Courland  accepted  the  conditions  and 
came  to  Moscow.     There  she  received  letters  from  the 
enemies  of  the  Council  imploring  her  to  disregard  her 
promises.     (3n  the  25th  of  February,  1731,  the  Council 
was  in  session  when  an  officer  appeared  summoning  them 
before  the  czarina.     I'po"  arrival  in  the  apartment,  they 
found  about  eight  hundred  persons  presenting  a  petition 
that  Anne  might   restore   autocracy.      She   read   it   and 
seemed  astonished  :     "  What !  "  she  exclaimed,  '*  the  con- 
ditions sent  to  me  at  Mittau  were  not  the  will  of  the  peo- 
ple? "    There  was  a  shout  of  ''  No!  no!  "  "  Then,"  she 
said,  addressing  the  Council,  "you  have  deceived  me!" 
Anne  was  a  true  daughter  of  the  czars.     She  began  by 
exiling  the  principal  members  of  the  Council  to  their  es- 
tates ;  when  she  saw  that  there  was  no  opposition,  they 
were   sent  to   Siberia :  and   when   no  one   remonstrated, 
other  members  were  condemned  to  a  cruel  death. 


^77 

Anne  was  thirty-five  years  old  when  she  was  crowned 
as  czarina.  She  had  been  in  Germany  so  long  that  she 
preferred  to  surround  herself  with  Germans  w^ho  did 
serve  her  well,  but  they  naturally  aroused  the  jealousy 
and  hatred  of  the  Russian  nobles.  In  1733,  Augustus  II, 
King  of  Poland,  died.  Russia,  Prussia,  and  France, 
each  had  a  candidate.  Austria  and  Russia  favored  Au- 
gustus III  of  Saxony,  and  Louis  XV  of  France  supported 
his  father-in-law  Stanislas  Leszcinski. 

This  candidate  secretly  proceeded  to  Warsaw,  where 
he  was  elected  by  a  vote  of  60,000  against  4,000.  A 
Russian  army  crossed  the  frontier,  whereupon  Stanislas 
withdrew  to  Dantzig  and  the  Russians  proclaimed  Au- 
gustus III.  The  war  spread  and  a  Russian  army  of  20,- 
000  men  advanced  as  far  as  Heidelberg  in  Baden.  It 
ended  in  1735,  by  the  Peace  of  Vienna,  but  Russia  be- 
came involved  in  a  war  with  Turkey,  as  an  ally  of  Aus- 
tria. 

In  1736,  the  Russians  took  Azof  and  ravaged  the 
w^estern  Crimea.  In  the  following  year  they  laid  waste 
its  eastern  part,  and  in  1739  they  gained  a  great  victory 
at  Savoutchani.  Austria  was  not  anxious  to  have  Rus- 
sia as  a  close  neighbor,  and  arranged  the  Peace  of  Bel- 
grade. (1739.)  Russia  surrendered  all  the  conquests, 
except  a  small  tongue  of  land  between  the  Dnieper  and 
the  Bug.  Sweden  threatened  war,  but  it  was  averted. 
The  following  year,  1740,  Anne  died,  leaving  the  throne 
to  her  infant  son,  Ivan  of  Brunswick. 

Anne  Ivanovna  introduced  western  luxury  into  Rus- 
sia. Prior  to  her  arrival,  fashions  were  unknown,  and 
people  used  to  wear  their  clothes  until  they  were  worn 


178 


out.  Soon  after  restoring  autocracy,  she  returned  to  St. 
Petersburg  where  she  endeavored  to  estabhsh  a  court  in 
imitation  of  that  of  France.  She  could  compel  her 
nobles  to  appear  in  the  costume  of  the  west,  and,  unless 
they  were  very  wealthy,  make  them  sacrifice  estates  and 
serfs  to  pay  his  increased  expenses,  but  of  the  refinement 
which  creates  fashion,  there  was  none.  One  of  her 
guests,  a  procurator-general  was  so  intoxicated  at  one 
of  her  receptions  that  he  insulted  one  of  Anne's  most 
trusted  advisers;  she  was  a  witness,  but  only  laughed 

heartily. 

The  young  nobles  benefited  by  the  German  influence 
at  Court,  since  they  received  a  better  education.  A  law 
was  made  requiring  them  to  study  from  their  seventh 
to  their  twentieth  year,  and  to  serve  the  government  from 
that  age  until  they  were  forty-five.  Between  the  age 
of  twelve  and  sixteen  they  were  made  to  appear  before 
an  examining  board,  and  any  one  failing  to  pass  the 
second  time  in  catechism,  arithmetic,  and  geometry,  was 
put  into  the  navy.  In  the  schools  for  young  nobles,— 
the  serfs  received  no  instruction  of  any  kind, — the  course 
of  studies  was  enlarged  after  the  German  system. 

Anne's  infant  son,  Ivan,  was  three  months  old,  when 
he  succeeded  to  the  throne  as  Ivan  VI.  Elizabeth,  the 
daughter  of  Peter  the  Great  and  Catherine,  was  twenty- 
eight  years  old;  tall  and  masculine,  bright  and  bold,  dar- 
ing on  horseback  as  well  as  on  the  water,  she  had  made  a 
host  of  friends  among  the  high  officials  and  the  Guards. 
She  found  an  able  adviser  in  the  French  Minister  at  St. 
Petersburg  who  was  anxious  to  destroy  the  influence  of 
Germany.     The  Swedes  went  so  far  as  to  begin  a  war, 


179 


proclaiming  the  desire  to  deliver  ''  the  glorious  Russian 
nation  "  from  the  (ierman  yoke.  Elizabeth  decided  that 
the  time  had  come  to  act,  when  the  regiments  devoted  to 
her  were  ordered  to  the  frontier.  In  the  night  of  Oc- 
tober 25,  1 741,  she  went  with  three  friends  to  the  bar- 
racks. *'  Boys,"  she  said  to  the  men,  **  you  know  whose 
daughter  I  am?"  ''  Matuska,"  (little  mother),  they  re- 
plied, "  we  are  ready  ;  we  will  kill  all  of  them."  She 
said  that  she  did  not  wish  any  blood  to  be  shed,  and 
added:  *'  I  swear  to  die  for  you;  will  you  swear  to  die 
for  me?"  They  made  the  oath.  When  she  returned  to 
the  palace,  the  regent,  the  infant  czar,  and  the  (jcrman 
members  of  the  Government  were  arrested.  Ivan  VI 
was  sent  to  a  fortress  near  the  Swedish  frontier.  The 
Ciermans  were  brought  before  a  court  and  condemned  to 
death,  but  Elizabeth  commuted  the  sentence  to  exile. 
After  this  she  went  to  Moscow,  where  she  was  crowned 
as  czarina,  ller  next  act  was  to  send  for  her  nephew, 
Peter,  the  son  of  her  sister  Anne  of  Holstein.  He  came 
and  entered  the  Greek  Church,  when  he  was  proclaimed 
as  heir  to  the  throne  as  Peter  Feodorovitch. 

Sweden  demanded  the  cession  of  the  territory  con- 
quered by  Peter  the  Great,  and,  since  Elizabeth  refused, 
the  war  continued.  But  Sweden  was  no  longer  the 
kingdom  of  Charles  XII;  the  Russians  were  everywhere 
victorious,  and  by  the  ]*eace  of  Abo,  in  1743,  Sweden 
ceded  South  Finland  and  agreed  to  elect  Elizabeth's  ally, 
Adoli)hus  of  Holstein,  as  heir  to  the  throne. 

In  1740  the  Emperor  of  Germany  died,  after  obtaining 
from  the  powers  the  consent  to  set  aside  the  Salic  Law  of 
succession,  in  favor  of  his  daughter.    This  law  restricted 


i8o 


i<Si 


the  right  of  succession  to  male  heirs  excUisively.     In 
violation  of  the  pledged  word,  several  claimants  appeared 
to  contest  the  claim  of  his  daughter  Maria  Theresa,  and 
since  almost  every  nation  took  sides,  it  was  important  to 
know  what  Russia  would  do.     Elizabeth  was  undecided ; 
at  least,  she  played  with  both  sides  until  1746,  when  she 
entered  into  an  alliance  with  Maria  Theresa,  while  Eng- 
land promised   subsidies   in   money.      It    was,   however, 
1748    before    a    Russian    army    of    30,000    men    passed 
through  Germany  and  took  up  a  position  on  the  Rhine. 
In  the  same  year  the  war  was  ended  by  the  Peace  of  Aix- 
la-Chapelle,  without  the  Russians  having  been  under  fire. 
Elizabeth  hated  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia.     She 
claimed  that  ''  The  King  of  Prussia  is  certainly  a  bad 
prince  who  has  no  fear  of  God  before  his  eyes ;  he  turns 
holy  things  into  ridicule,  and  he  never  goes  to  church." 
The  real  reason  was  that  Frederick  had  expressed  his 
opinion  about  Elizabeth's  private  life,  and  she  was  not 
the  woman  to  forgive  his  remarks.     Then  again,  Fred- 
erick had  an  excellent  army  of  200,000  men ;  Elizabeth's 
chancellor,  on  that  account,  called   Prussia  "the  most 
dangerous  of  neighbors,  whose  power  it  was  necessary  to 

break.'* 

Russia,  Austria,  France,  and  Saxony,  entered  into  a 
secret  alliance  against  Prussia.  Frederick  found  it  out, 
and  in  1756,  began  the  famous  Seven  Years'  War.  The 
same  vear,  83,000  Russians  under  Apraxine  crossed  the 
frontier  and  seized  East  Prussia.  A  battle  was  fought ; 
the  Russians  were  the  victors,  but  Apraxine  fell  back 
across  the  Niemen.  France  and  Austria  suspected 
treacherv:   Apraxine   was   arrested   and   the   chancellor 


\ 


was  dismissed  and  exiled.     h\Tmor  was  appointed  com- 

niander-in-cliiof. 

The  Russian  army  recrossed  the  frontier  in  1758,  took 
K()nigsberg  and  bombarded  Kiistrin  on  the  Oder.     Fred- 
erick with  32,000  men  attacked  the  Russian  army  89,000 
strong  at  Zorndorf.     The   Russians   fought   stubbornly 
but  were  defeated  with  a  loss  of  20,000  men.     Fermor 
was  recalled,  and  succeeded  by  Soltykof  who,  in   1759, 
entered    Frankfort   on    the   Oder.      Another   battle   was 
fought  and  Frederick  was  defeated  by  greatly  superior 
numbers.     He  lost  8,000  men.     Prussia  was  exhausted, 
but  his  enemies,  too,  began  to  feel  the  expense  of  the 
war.     Elizabeth,  however,  was  determined  to  humble  the 
outspoken  King  when  she  died  suddenly  in   1761.     She 
was  succeeded  by  her  nephew  Peter  Feodorovitch  under 
the  name  of  Peter  III. 

Elizabeth,  although  careless  in  her  mode  of  living,  was 
a  stout  supporter  of  the  Greek  Church.  In  1742,  she 
agreed  with  the  Holy  Synod  to  suppress  all  other 
churches,  as  well  as  the  Mosques  or  Mahomedan  temples 
in  the  south.  This  caused  a  revoU  of  the  Mahomedans. 
The  Jews  were  also  expelled  in  some  parts  of  the  empire. 
A  fever  of  fanaticism  broke  out ;  fifty-three  raskolnik  in 
Russia,  and  one  hundred  and  seventy-two  in  Siberia, 
burned  themselves  to  death. 

Count  Ivan  Schouvalof,  one  of  Elizabeth's  friends, 
believed  in  education  and  was  given  a  free  hand.  He 
ordered  that  the  priests  and  their  children  should  attend 
school,  on  penalty  of  being  whipped.  He  founded  the 
University  of  Moscow,  which  has  educated  many  learned 
Russians.  To  induce  students  to  enter,  he  induced  Eliza- 
Sto.  of  Russia— 12 


I  82 


both  to  make  a  law  that  all  studciils  should  he  tchins  of 
the  tenth  grade,  and  the  professors  hold  the  eighth  grade. 
He  sent  young  men  abroad  to  study  and  established 
higher  schools  in  every  Government.  Schouvalof  was 
also  the  founder  of  the  Acadeniv  of  Fine.  Arts  at  St. 
Petersburg. 

That  capital  was  growing ;  its  population  was  74,000 
under  Elizabeth.  She  built  the  Winter  l\alace  and  saw 
the  plans  for  Tsarskoe  Selo,  the  magnificent  retreat  of 
the  Russian  emperors.  She  reestablished  the  Senate,  as 
organized  by  Peter  the  Great. 


XXI-RUSSIA     UNDER     CATHERINE     II 

(THE  GREAT) 

PETER  III  was  thirty-four  years  old  when  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne.  Although  it  was  twenty 
years  since  his  aunt  Elizabeth  sent  for  him  from  Holstein, 
he  was  more  of  a  (icrman  than  a  Russian,  and  had  an 
intense  admiration  for  Frederick  the  Great.  He  at  once 
reversed  Russia's  policy,  ordered  the  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Russian  armies  to  leave  his  Austrian  allies, 
and  made  peace  with  the  King  of  Prussia  to  whom  he 
restored  all  Russia's  conquests.  Then  he  entered  into  an 
alliance  with  Frederick,  which  was  the  means  of  saving 

Prussia. 

Pptcr  relieved  the  nobles  of  the  duty  of  serving  the 
state,  for  which  they  were  so  grateful  that  they  proposed 
to  erect  his  statue  in  gold ;  he  heard  of  it,  and  forbade 
their  doing  so.  He  abolished  the  Secret  Court  of  Police, 
and  showed  great  kindness  to  the  raskols  and  permitted 
many  of  them  to  return  from  Siberia.  A  host  of  other 
exiles  were  recalled,  and  he  thought  of  relieving  the  hard 
lot  of  the  moujiks. 

For  all  this,  he  was  unpopular  and  disliked.  His  dis- 
regard for  old  Russian  customs  and  his  mode  of  life  gave 
deep  oiTense.    He  was  married  to  Sophia  of  Anhalt,  who 

183 


1 84 


had  assumed  the  name  of  Catherine ;  she  was  a  woman  of 
decided  ability  and  strong  character.  Peter  wanted  a 
divorce.  She  heard  of  it  and  contrived  a  conspiracy 
amonq-  the  hig^h  nobles  and  officers  of  the  armv  and  navv. 
Peter  had  no  thought  of  danger,  when  he  ordered  the 
arrest  of  Passek,  a  young  officer  and  favorite  of  Cath- 
erine. Thinking  that  the  conspiracy  had  l)een  discovered, 
she  left  her  palace  in  the  outskirts  and  came  to  St.  Peters- 
burg: where  the  three  regiments  of  Foot  (iuards  declared 
in  her  favor,  and  Peter's  uncle  was  arrested  by  his  own 
regiment  of  Horse  Guards.  When  Catherine  entered  the 
Winter  Palace,  she  was  sure  of  the  army  and  navy ; 
Cronstadt  was  seized  by  her  su])])orters,  and  she  issued 
a  proclamation  assuming  the  government.  At  the  head 
of  20,000  men,  she  marched  upon  the  Palace,  where  the 
czar,  her  husband,  was  residing. 

Peter  fled  to  Cronstadt  and  sought  the  Admiral.  "  I 
am  the  czar,"  he  said.  "  There  is  no  longer  a  czar,*"  was 
the  reply,  and  all  Peter  could  do  was  to  return  to  his 
palace,  where  he  abdicated  *'  like  a  child  being  sent  to 
sleep."  as  bVedorick  the  (ireat  expressed  it.  He  then 
called  on  his  wife,  **  after  which,"  Catherine  tells  us,  **  I 
sent  the  deposed  emperor,  under  the  command  of  Alexis 
Orlof  accompanied  by  four  officers  and  a  detachment  of 
gentle  and  reasonable  men,  to  a  place  called  Ropcha, 
fifteen  miles  from  IVterhof,  a  secluded  spot,  but  very 
pleasant."  lM)ur  days  later  Peter  III  was  dead.  Cath- 
erine declared  that  he  died  of  colic  "  with  the  blood 
flying  to  the  brains.'' 

But  one  was  living  with  just  and  strong  claims  to  the 
throne.    Ivan  \  I,  the  infant  czar  sent  to  prison  by  Eliza- 


(185) 


Catharine  II 


-r,   'ii.^    -        -ui".^ 


IS4 


had  assiinied  tlic  namo  of  Catherine :  slie  was  a  woman  of 
decided  ahility  and  stron<j  cliaraeter.  IVter  wanted  a 
(Hvorce.  She  heard  of  it  and  contrived  a  conspiracy 
anioni;  the  hii^h  nobles  and  officers  of  the  army  and  navy. 
IVter  liad  no  thoucflit  of  (hmjjer,  wlun  he  ordered  the 
arrest  of  Passek,  a  yonnjLT  officer  and  favorite  of  Cath- 
erine. Tliinkinii-  that  the  conspiracy  had  heen  (hscovered, 
she  left  her  ])alace  in  the  ontskirts  and  canu'  to  St.  Teters- 
hnri^  where  the  three  rei^iments  of  j-'oot  ( inards  declared 
in  her  favor,  and  Peter's  nncle  was  arrested  hy  his  own 
reijiment  of  I  f  orse  dnards.  When  Catherine  entered  the 
Winter  Palace,  she  was  snre  of  the  army  and  navy; 
Cronstadt  was  seizecl  hy  her  snpporters,  and  she  issned 
a  proclamation  assnmincr  the  c^overmnent.  At  the  head 
of  2o.(X)o  men,  she  marchetl  npon  the  Palace,  where  the 
czar,  her  hnshand.  was  residinir. 

IVlei-  lied  lo  I  loiisUidl  .iini  m-u-hI  llie  Admiral.  "I 
am  the  czar,"  he  said.  "  There  is  no  loniL;er  a  czar,"  was 
the  reply,  and  all  Peter  conld  do  was  to  retnrn  to  his 
palace,  where  he  alxlicaled  '"  like  a  child  hemiL;  sent  to 
sleep,"  as  k'rederick  the  ( ireat  e.\])ressed  it.  lie  then 
called  on  hi<  wife,  "after  which."  ( 'nthcrinc  tells  ns,  *'  I 
sent  the  depo>ed  emperor,  nnder  the  coiuhuuki  oi  Ale\i> 
Orlof  accom])anied  hy  fonr  ofticers  and  a  detachment  of 
Identic  and  reasonable  men  t,,  1  pkiee  called  ]\o])cha, 
fifteen  miles  from  IVterhoi,  a  sechided  spot,  bnt  very 
plea.sijit."  I'onr  days  later  Peter  111  was  dead.  Cath- 
erine declared  that  he  died  of  colic  "with  thr  blood 
fIvinjL;'  to  the  brains." 

P>nt  one  was  livini.^  with  jnst  and  strong'  claims  to  the 
thn»ne.     Ivan  \  1,  the  infant  czar  sent  to  prison  b\   Kliza- 


(185) 


Catharine  II 


1 86 


beth  in  1741,  was  now  twenty-one  years  old.  Tt  was 
reported  that  he  had  lost  his  reason,  which  may  have 
been  true  or  false.  Catherine  disposed  of  him.  She  said : 
'*  It  is  my  opinion  that  he  should  not  be  allowed  to  escape, 
so  as  to  place  him  beyond  the  powr^r  nf  doinfjharm.  It 
would  be  best  to  tonsure  him  (thai  is,  to  make  a  monk  of 
him),  and  to  transfer  him  to  some  monastery,  neither 
too  near  nor  too  far  off;  it  will  suffice  if  it  does  not 
become  a  shrine."  She  did  not  desire  that  the  people 
should  make  a  martyr  of  a  descendant  of  Peter  the  Great, 
while  she,  a  foreipi  woman,  was  occui)yinjL^  the  throne. 
Poor  Ivan  was  murdered  by  his  keepers  two  years  later, 
when  a  lieutenant  of  the  Guards  was  tryinor  to  effect  his 
escape.  After  that,  Catherine  had  no  rival  for  the  crown, 
except  her  son  Paul,  whom  she  disliked. 

At  first  it  seemed  as  if  Catherine  would  reverse  her 
husband's  policy  with  regard  to  Prussia.  She  gave  or- 
ders to  the  army  to  leave  the  Prussian  camp,  but  she  did 
not  command  active  hostilities ;  since  the  parties  felt  the 
exhaustion  of  a  seven  years'  struggle,  i)eace  negotiations 
were  begun  and  concluded  successfully. 

Catherine  made  Russia  a  party  to  the  System  of  the 
North  ;  that  is,  she  entered  into  an  alliance  with  England, 
Prussia,  and  Denmark,  as  against  France  and  Austria. 
Nearlv  all  Europe  was  deeply  interested  in  the  severe 
illness  of  the  King  of  Poland,  because  of  the  election 
which  must  follow  his  death.  Unh:ii)i)y  Poland  was 
bringing  destruction  ui)on  itself.  .A  lawless  nobility  kept 
the  country  in  anarchy,  and  religious  persecution,  which 
had  disappeared  elsewhere,  was  still  rami)ant.  It  was  the 
gold  distributed  by  interested  powers,  that  controlled  the 


187 

vote  of  the  Diet,  and  since  it  was  merely  a  question  of 
the  highest  bidder,  Frederick  the  Great  and  Catherine 
came  to  an  understanding.  They  decided  to  elect  Stan- 
islas Poniatofski,  a  Polish  noble.  France  and  Austria 
supported  the  Prince  of  Saxony,  who  was  also  the  choice 
of  the  Court  party.  After  the  death  of  Augustus  III,  the 
Diet  assembled  and  elected  the  French  and  Austrian  can- 
didate. Members  of  the  Diet  asked  for  Russian  inter- 
vention and,  supported  by  Catherine's  army,  Poniatofski 
was  placed  on  the  throne. 

Russia  and   Prussia  were  not  satisfied;  they   wanted 
part  of  the  kingdom  and  the  prevailing  anarchy  on  -their 
frontiers  justified  them.     But  Catherine  made  a  pretext 
out  of  Poland's  religious  intolerance,— although  the  same 
existed  in  Russia.     In  1765,  Koninski,  the  Bishop  of  the 
Greek  Church  presented  to  the  King  a  petition  asking 
redress  for  a  number  of  grievances  which  he  enumerated. 
The  King  promised  relief  and  submitted  the  matter  to 
the  Diet  of  1766.     The  majority  would  not  hear  of  any 
tolerance,  although  Russia  had  on  the  frontier  an  army 
of  80,000  men  ready  to  invade   Poland.     The  Diet  of 
1767  showed  the  same  foolish  spirit,  but  it  was  broken 
when  two  of  its  members,  both  Catholic  bishops,  were 
arrested  under  Russian  orders,  and  carried  into  Russian 
territory.     The  Diet  did  not  appear  to  resent  this  vio- 
lation of  a  friendly  territory  but  entered  in  1768  into  a 
treaty  with  Russia,  in  which  it  was  agreed  that  Poland 
would  make  no  change  in  its  constitution  without  Rus- 
sia's consent.     The  Russian  army  was  withdrawn  from 
Warsaw,  and  a  deputation  from  the  Diet  was  sent  to  St. 
Petersburg  to  thank  Catherine, 


1 88 


Two  hostile  parties  soon  appeared  in  arms.  The 
CathoHcs  raised  the  hanner  '*  Pro  rehj^^ione  et  hhertate !  " 
— as  if  they  understood  what  hberty  meant !  France 
helped  with  money,  and  urged  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  to 
declare  war  against  Russia,  so  that  Catherine  would  be 
compelled  to  withdraw  her  troops.  Russia  was  inciting 
those  of  the  (ireek  and  Protestant  religions  to  whom 
assistance  was  promised. 

In  the  winter  of  1768,  the  Tartars  of  the  Crimea,  aided 
by  the  Turks,  invaded  Russia,  and  Catherine  dispatched 
an  army  of  30,000  men, — all  she  could  spare.  In  the  fol- 
lowinsf  vear,  the  Russians  attacked  and  defeated  the 
enemy  100,000  strong  at  Khotin  on  the  Dnieper,  and  in 
1770  the  Khan  of  the  Crimea  met  the  same  fate.  In  the 
same  year  at  the  battle  of  Kagul,  17,000  Russians  defeated 
150,000  Turks  commanded  by  the  Crand  \'izier.  In  the 
same  year  the  Russians  destroyed  the  Turkish  fleet  in  the 
port  of  Chesme.  In  1771,  the  Tartars  of  the  Crimea  were 
put  to  rout,  and  the  Russians  took  liessarabia  and  some 
forts  on  the  Danube.  They  wTre,  however,  too  late  to 
take  possession  of  the  Dardanelles,  which  the  Turks  had 
put  into  a  state  of  defense. 

Austria  was  becoming  alarmed  at  Russia's  victories, 
and  lent  a  willing  ear  to  the  suggestion  of  Frederick  the 
Cireat  that  it  would  be  safer  to  permit  Russia  to  gain 
territory  belonging  to  Poland,  provided  .\ustria  and 
Prussia  should  receive  their  share.  On  bVbruary  17, 
1 77 1,  a  treat v  was  concluded  between  Russia  and  Prussia, 
and  accepted  by  Austria  in  April,  whereby  Poland  was 
deprived  of  a  good  part  of  its  territory.  Catherine 
secured  White  Russia  with  a  population  of   1,600,000; 


189 


Frederick  the  Great  took  West  Prussia  with  900,000 
inhabitants,  and  Austria  received  Western  Gallicia  and 
Red  Russia  with  2,500,000  people.  This  was  the  begin- 
ning of  the  end  of  Poland. 

The  i)eace  negotiations  with  Turkey  were  broken  off, 
and  war  was  resumed.  Being  busy  elsewhere,  Catherine 
could  not  prevent  a  coup  d'etat  in  Sweden,  which  saved 
that  country  from  the  fate  of  Poland.  Besides  suffering 
from  these  constant  wars,  Russia  was  visited  by  the 
plague,  which  in  July  and  August,  1771,  daily  carried  off 
a  thousand  victims  in  Moscow  alone.  The  Archbishop, 
an  enlightened  man,  was  put  to  death  by  a  mob  for  order- 
ing the  streets  to  be  fumigated.     Troops  were  necessary 

to  restore  order. 

The  condition  of  the  country  was  dreadful.  Alexander 
Bibikof  was  sent  to  suppress  a  dangerous  insurrection, 
he  wrote  to  his  wife  after  arriving  on  the  spot,  that  the 
general  discontent  was  frightful.  It  was  for  this  reason 
that  Catherine  concluded  peace  with  the  sultan  in  1774; 
besides  an  indemnity,  she  received  Azof  on  the  Don  and 
all  the  strong  places  in  the  Crimea,  and  was  recognized 
as  the  protector  of  the  sultan's  Christian  subjects.  In 
1775,  she    finallv  broke  the  power  of  the  Cossacks. 

Through  the  mediation  of  France  and  Russia,  a  war 
between  Prussia  and  Austria  concerning  the  succession 
in  Bavaria,  was  narrowly  averted.  During  the  American 
War  of  Independence,  Russia,  Sweden,  Denmark,  Prus- 
sia, and  Portugal,  ])r()claimed  armed  neutrality,  and  Hol- 
land declared  war,  because  P>ritish  warships  caused 
endless  trouble  to  vessels  under  neutral  Hags.  This  cele- 
brated act  declared  "that  contraband  goods"  included 


190 

only  arms  and  ammunition.     Most  countries  agreed  to 
this,  with  the  exception  of  England. 

In  1775  Catherine  annexed  the  Crimea,  on  the  plea 
that  anarchy  prevailed.  Turkey  protested  and  threatened 
war  but  France  meditated  and  the  sukan  recognized  the 
annexation  by  the  Treaty  of  Constantinople  in  1783. 

In  1787,  a  remarkable  secret  agreement  was  signed 
between  Russia  and  Austria.  It  is  known  as  the  Greek 
Project,  and  was  nothing  less  than  a  scheme  to  divide 
Turkey  between  the  two  powers.  The  plot  as  proposed 
by  Russia,  was  to  create  an  independent  state  under  the 
name  of  Dacia,  to  embrace  Moldavia.  Wallachia,  and 
Bessarabia,  with  a  prince  belonging  to  the  Cireek  Church 
at  the  head.  Russia  was  to  receive  Otchakof,  the  shore 
between  the  Bug  and  the  Dnieper,  and  some  islands  in 
the  Archipelago,  and  Austria  would  annex  the  Turkish 
province  adjoining  its  territory.  If  the  Turk  should  be 
expelled  from  Europe,  the  old  Byzantine  Empire  was  to 
be  reestablished,  and  the  throne  occupied  by  Catherine's 
grandson  Constantine,  **  who  would  renounce  all  his 
claims  to  Russia,  so  that  the  two  empires  might  never  be 
united  under  the  same  scepter."  Austria  agreed  on  con- 
dition that  she  should  also  receive  the  \>netian  i)osses- 
sions  in  Moldavia,  when  Venice  would  be  indemnified  by 
part  of  Greece. 

Soon  after  this  the  sultan  declared  war  against  Rus- 
sia. This  took  Catherine  by  suri)rise.  Other  enemies 
sprang  up:  the  King  of  Prussia  wanted  Dantzig,  the 
King-  of  Sweden.  South  Finland.  The  latter  invaded 
Russia  and  might  have  marched  upon  St.  Petersburg,  for 
all  Catherine  could  collect  was  an  army  of  12,000  men. 


191 


A  mutiny  in  the  camp  of  Gustavus  III,  compelled  him  to 
return  to  Stockholm,  and  the  opportunity  was  lost.  lie 
defeated  the  Russians  in  the  naval  battle  of  Svenska 
Sund,  but  a  second  engagement  was  to  the  advantage  of 
Russia.  The  French  Revolution  caused  him  to  make 
peace,  and  to  enter  into  an  alliance  with  Russia  against 
the  French. 

In  the  south  Russian  arms  were  more  fortunate.  The 
Turks  were  defeated  in  1789,  and  1790,  on  which  occa- 
sions a  young  general  named  Souvorof  distinguished 
himself.  Upon  the  death  of  Joseph  II  of  Austria,  his 
successor  Leopold  made  peace  with  Turkey  at  Sistova. 
(1791.)  It  was  the  French  revolution,  which  seriously 
alarmed  every  crowned  head  in  Europe,  and  which 
induced  Catherine  to  follow  Leopold's  example  at  Jassy, 
in  January,  1792,  Russia  kept  only  Otchakof  and  the 
shore  between  the  lUig  and  the  Dniester. 

Poland,  meanwhile,  had  made  an  earnest  effort  at 
reform.  Thaddeus  Kosciusko  had  returned  from  the 
United  States,  where  he  had  fought  for  liberty  and  was 
trying  to  save  his  own  country.  Born  in  1752,  he  entered 
a  military  school  founded  by  the  Czartoryskis  at  the  age 
of  twelve,  and  distinguished  himself  by  attention  to  his 
studies  and  duties.  His  father  was  assassinated  by  exas- 
perated peasants,  and  he  himself  was  scornfully  ejected 
by  a  powerful  noble  whose  daughter  he  was  courting. 
Attracted  by  the  struggle  of  a  handful  of  colonists 
against  powerful  England,  he  went  to  America  and 
served  with  distinction  in  the  War  of  the  Revolution. 
After  seeing  Great  Britain  humbled  and  a  new  republic 
established  in  the  New  World,  he  came  back  to  Poland 


UJ2 


and  was  soon  amon^:  the  foremost  reformers,— a  man  in 
whom  the  patriotic  Poles  justly  trusted.  lUit  traitors 
were  found  to  accept  Russian  brihes,  and  for  the  second 
time  Poland  was  despoiled.  Russia  annexed  the  eastern 
provinces  with  3,000,000  inhabitants,  and  Prussia  took 
Dantzi^  and  Thorn.  Austria  was  told  that  she  might 
take  from  the  French  Rei)ublic  as  much  as  she  wished,— 

or  could. 

Manfully  and  indefatigably  did  Kosciusko  labor  to 
stem  the  tide  of  his  country's  ruin.  His  patriotism 
aroused  even  that  of  the  poor,  down-trodden  serfs,  who 
had  no  interests  to  defend,  yet  stood  by  him  in  battle 
when  the  nobles  on  horseback  tied,  and  wrenched  a  vic- 
tory out  of  defeat.  Well  might  Kosciusko  thereafter 
dress  in  the  garb  of  a  peasant ;  a  gentleman's  dress  was  a 
badge  of  dishonor. 

It  was  in  1794,  that  this  battle  took  place  and  gave 
the  signal,  too,  for  an  etTort  to  restore  Poland.  P.ut  Aus- 
tria, Prussia,  and  Russia  combined,  and  Poland  was  lost. 
Heroic  children  were  made  to  pay  for  the  sins  of  their 
fathers.  Poland  expired  in  1795.  Prussia  took  Eastern 
Poland,  including  Warsaw;  Austria  annexed  Cracow, 
Sandomir,  Lublin,  and  Selm,  and  Russia  took  what 
remained.  The  patriots  dispersed;  most  of  them  took 
service  with  the  French,  hoping  for  an  opportunity  to 
revive  their  country. 

Catherine  took  especial  pains  to  prevent  the  ideas, 
which  alone  made  the  French  revolution  possible,  from 
entering  into  Russia.  There  was  no  occasion  for  this 
prudence.  The  great  majority  of  the  Russian  people  did 
not  know  of  any  world  beyond  Russia;  most  of  them 


193 


knew  nothing  beyond  the  narrow  horizon  of  their  own 
village,  and  could  neither  read  nor  write.  The  harrow- 
ing tales  brought  by  the  fugitive  French  nobles  did  not 
tend  toward  inspiring  the  Russian  aristocracy  with  sym- 
l)athy  for  Liberty,  PLquality,  and  Fraternity. 

Satisfied  that  Russia  was  beyond  the  sphere  of  what 
she  regarded  as  pernicious  doctrines,  Catherine  deter- 
mined to  make  the  greatest  possible  profit  out  of  the  dis- 
turbed condition  of  Europe.  She  never  ceased  to  incite 
Prussia  and  Austria  against  the  French  Republic,  but 
carefully  refrained  from  spending  a  dollar  or  risking  a 
man.  She  pleaded  first  her  war  with  Turkey,  and  after- 
wards the  Polish  insurrection.  She  said  to  Osterman, 
one  of  her  ministers:  *'  Am  I  wrong?  For  reasons  that 
I  cannot  give  to  the  Courts  of  Berlin  and  Menna,  I  wish 
to  involve  them  in  these  affairs,  so  that  I  may  have  my 
hands  free.  Many  of  my  enterprises  are  still  unfinished, 
and  they  must  be  so  occui)ied  as  to  leave  me  unfettered." 

While  Europe  was  engaged  in  the  hopeless  task  of 
establishing  and  maintaining  the  divine  rights  of  kings, 
Catherine  began  a  war  with  Persia.  One  of  her  "  unfin- 
ished enterprises "  was  interrupted  by  her  death  in 
November,  1796,  at  the  age  of  sixty-seven.  She  left  the 
throne  to  her  son  Paul. 


XXII— RUSSIA  DURIXG  THE  WARS  OF 

NAPOLEON 


PAUL  was  forty-two  years  old  when  he  succeeded  to 
the  throne.      His   youth   and   early   manhood   had 
been  far  from  pleasant.     His  mother  had  never  shown 
any  love  for  him,  and  Paul  had  not  for-:otten  his  father's 
sudden  death.     He  was  held  in  absolute  submission,  and 
was  not  permitted  to  share  in  the  government ;  he  had  not 
even  a  voice  in  the  education  of  his  children.     The  cour- 
tiers, in  order  to  please  his  mother,  showed  him  scant 
courtesy;  this  is  probably  the  reason  of  his  sensitiveness 
after  he  came  to  the  throne.    1  le  ordered  men  and  women 
to  kneel  down  in  the  street  when  he  was  passing,  and 
those  who  drove   in   carriages   had  to  halt.      It   is  also 
shown  in  this  remark,  "  Know  that  the  only  person  of 
consideration  in  Russia  is  the  person  whom   I  address, 
at  the  moment  that  I  am  addressing  him."     It  was  justice, 
but   it   reflected  upon   his   mother's   memory   when,   im- 
mediately   after    her    death,    Paul    ordered    his    father's 
remains  to  be  exhumed,  to  be  buried  at  the  same  time 
and  with  the  same  pomp  as  those  of  Catherine. 

Such  a  man  could  have  no  sympathy  with  the  French 
revolution  which  was  shaking  the  foundations  of  Old 
Europe.     He  forbade  the  use  of  any  word  that  might 

194 


195 


be  construed  to  refer  to  it.  He  ordered  the  army 
to  ado])t  the  Russian  uniform,  including  the  powdered 
pigtails  of  that  time.  Souvorof  fell  in  disgrace  because 
he  was  reported  to  have  said :  '*  There  is  powder  and 
powder.  Shoe  buckles  are  not  gun  carriages,  nor  pig- 
tails bayonets ;  we  are  not  Prussians  but  Russians." 

Paul  pardoned  a  number  of  exiled  Poles,  and  brought 
the  last  king,  Stanislas  Poniatofski,  to  St.  Petersburg. 
He  discontinued  the  war  with  Persia,  and  instructed  his 
ambassadors  to  announce  that  since  Russia,  and  Russia 
alone,  had  been  at  war  since  1756,  *'  the  humanity  of  the 
Emperor  did  not  allow  him  to  refuse  his  beloved  subjects 
the  peace  for  which  they  sighed." 

Nevertheless,  Russia  was  drawn  into  Napoleon's  gigan- 
tic wars.  Uneasy  at  the  plans  of  the  French  Republic, 
Paul  entered  into  an  alliance  with  England,  Austria, 
Naples,  and  Turkey.  He  furnished  troops  for  England's 
descent  upon  Holland,  and  recalled  Souvorof  to  take 
command  of  the  Russian  forces  cooperating  with  those 
of  Austria.  The  P)ritish  expedition  proved  a  failure,  but 
Souvorof's  strategy  and  indomitable  courage  shed  glory 
upon  the  Russian  army. 

When  Souvorof  arrived  at  Vienna,  he  took  command 
of  the  allied  forces  consisting  of  90,000  men.  On  April 
28,  1799,  he  surprised  Moreau  at  Cassano  and  took  3,000 
prisoners.  He  entered  Milan,  and  soon  after  laid  siege 
to  Mantua,  Alessandria,  and  Turin.  On  June  17,  Sou- 
vorof was  attacked  on  the  Trebia ;  the  battle  lasted  three 
days,  leaving  the  victory  to  the  Russians.  After  the 
victory  at  Novi,  on  the  15th  of  August,  the  French  were 
forced  to  evacuate  Italv. 


196 

Souvorof  had   divided  his   force  of  80,000  Russians 
into  two  corps,  one  to  operate  in  Switzerland,  the  other 
nnder  his  own  command,   to  conchtct  the   campaign   m^ 
Italy      His  great  success  brought  upon  him  the  envy  ot 
the  Austrian  generals,  by  whom  his  movements  were  con- 
stantly  hampered.      He   therefore   resolved    to   effect   a 
junction   with   the   forces   in   Switzerland,   who,   on   the 
26th  of  September,  had  been  defeated  at  Zurich  with  a 
loss  of  6,000  men.     Souvorof  did  not  know  this.     He 
reached  the  St.  Gothard  on  the  21st  and  crossed  it  under 
unheard-of  difficulties.     "  In  this  kingdom  of  terrors, ' 
he  writes  to  Paul,  "  abysses  open  beside  us  at  every  step, 
like  tombs  awaiting  our  arrival.    Nights  spent  among  the 
clouds,  thunder  that  never  ceases,  rain,  fog,  the  noise 
of  cataracts,  the  breaking  of  avalanches,  enormous  masses 
of  rocks  and  ice  which  fall   from  the  heights,  torrents 
which  sometimes  carry  men  and  horses  down  the  preci- 
pices, the  St.  Gothard,  that  colossus  who  sees  the  mists 
pass  under  him,-we  have  surmounted  all,  and  in  these 
inaccessible  spots  the  enemy  has  been  forced  to  give  way 
before  us.     Words  fail  to  describe  the  horrors  we  have 
seen,  and  in  the  midst  of  which  Providence  has  preserved 
us."     "  The  Russian,  inhabitant  of  the  plain,  was  awe- 
struck by  the  grandeur  of  this  mountain  scenery." 

Souvorof  brushed  the  French  out  of  his  way  until,  on 
the  26th,  he  arrived  at  Altdorf  with  the  loss  of  only  2,000 
men.  Here  he  received  information  of  the  defeat  at 
Zurich  and  saw  that  he  was  surrounded  on  all  sides  by 
superior  forces.  His  retreat  showed  the  highest  military 
skill,  as  well  as  the  man's  indomitable  energy.  Over  un- 
trodden mountains,  and  snow  at  one  place  five  feet  deep, 


197 


he  guided  the  remains  of  his  army  to  a  lower  altitude,  and 
went  into  winter  quarters  between  the  Her  and  the  Lech. 

Souvorof  complained  bitterly  to  the  czar  of  the 
Austrian  generals,  who  had  given  him  ample  reason. 
At  about  this  time  Xapoleon  had  returned  from  his  fruit- 
less campaign  in  Egypt,  and  at  Marengo  defeated  the 
Austrians.  whereby  the  results  of  Souvorof's  campaign 
were  lost.  Paul  was  angry  at  Austria  and  Great  Pritain. 
Xapoleon,  shrewdly  guessed  the  czar's  feelings,  released 
the  Russian  ])risoners,  after  equipj)ing  them  anew.  Paul 
satisfied  that  Xapoleon  was  an  enemy  of  republican  in- 
stitutions, conceived  an  intense  admiration  for  his  military 
genius,  and  came  to  an  understanding  with  him  to  over- 
throw liritish  rule  in  India.  The  czar  at  once  commenced 
to  prepare  its  execution.  Two  armies  were  formed ;  one 
was  to  march  on  the  I'pper  Indus  by  way  of  Khiva 
and  Bokhara,  while  the  Cossacks  under  their  hetman 
Denisof  would  go  by  Orenburg.  He  was  confident  that 
the  gigantic  task  could  be  accomplished,  and  sent  daily 
instructions  to  the  hetman. 

Xapoleon  had  a  far  better  idea  of  the  difficulties,  but 
he  did  not  consider  the  exj)e(lition  as  hopeless.  But  even 
if  it  failed,  he  would  be  the  winner,  because  England 
would  be  compelled  to  send  most  of  her  navy  to  India, 
while  Russia  would  be  too  fully  occupied,  to  interfere 
with  his  projects  in  Europe.  The  Cossacks  started  on 
their  long  journey,  by  crossing  the  Volga  on  the  floating 
ice  when,  on  the  24th  of  March,  1801,  Paul  was  assassi- 
nated in  his  palace. 

There  was  no  doubt  as  to  the  guilty  men,  but  Paul's  son, 
Alexander,  who  succeeded  him,  did  not  order  an  investi- 
Sto.  of  Russia— 13 


19^ 


gation.     Pahlen,  Panine,  Zoubof.  and  others,  known  as 
the  "  men  of  the  24th  of  March,"  were  removed  from 
office,  but  that  was  their  only  punishment.     Paul's  mother 
had   aHenated  her  grandchildren   from  the   father,   and 
Alexander  always  showed  greater  affection  for  Catherine 
than    for    Paul.     The   greatest   sufferer   was    Napoleon, 
who  saw  his  grand  schemes  go  up  in  smoke.     Alexander 
reversed  his  father's  policy,  both  at  home  and  abroad.    He 
came  to  an  understanding  with  England.     NapolecMi  tried 
earnestly    to    secure    the    new    czar's    friendship.      He 
wanted  a  free  hand  in  Europe  and  in  return  offered  the 
same   privilege   in   Asia,   but   Alexander   mistrusted   the 
First  Consul.    The  murder  of  the  Duke  of  F.nghien,  who, 
by  Napoleon's  order,  was  kidnaped  in  a  neutral  terri- 
tory and  shot,— still  furdier  alienated  the  czar. 

After   Napoleon's  coronation  as  emperor,   Alexander 
entered  into  an  alliance  with  England,  whereby  he  would 
receive  six  million  dollars  for  every  100,000  men  Russia 
placed  in  the  field.     The  Emperor  of  Austria  and  the 
King  of  Prussia  joined,  but  the  Austrians,  whose  generals 
seemed   unable   to   learn   by   experience,    were   defeated 
before  the  Russian  army  could  reach  the  Tyrol.     Once 
again  the   Russians  covered  themselves   with   glory  by 
Koutouzof's  masterly  retreat  to  the  north,  and  liagration's 
heroic  self-sacrifice.    At  Olmutz,  in  the  presence  of  Alex- 
ander,   the    Russo-Austrian    army,    80,000    strong,    was 
attacked  by  Napoleon  with  70,000  men.     The  Austrians 
had  induced  the  czar  to  adopt  their  plan  of  battle,  and  it 
met  with  the  usual  result.     Alexander  escaped,  escorted 
by  his  phvsician,  two  Cossacks,  and  a  company  of  the 
Guards.  (Dec.  2.,  1805.)     Twenty-four  days  later  Alex- 


199 


ander  concluded  peace  with   France  by  the  Treaty  of 
IVesburg. 

The  growing  power  of  Napoleon  induced  Alexander 
to  enter  hitu  a  new  coalition  with  England,  Prussia,  and 
Sweden.  Russia  bore  the  brunt  of  the  war,  after  Prussia 
had  been  rendered  harmless  after  the  battles  of  Jena  and 
Auerstadt.  The  Russians  withdrew  from  Prussian 
Poland ;  they  suddenly  left  their  winter  quarters  and 
attacked  the  h>ench.  On  the  8th  of  February,  one  of  the 
bloodiest  battles  was  fought  at  Eylau ;  the  h>ench  claimed 
the  victory,  but  it  was  barren  of  results. 

Napoleon  dreaded  Russia.  He  persuaded  the  Sultan  of 
Turkey  and  the  Shah  of  Persia  to  declare  war,  so  as  to 
occupy  Alexander  elsewhere.  The  czar,  however,  was 
loyal  to  his  allies  until,  on  the  14th  of  June,  his  army 
was  almost  annihilated  at  Friedland.  This  loss  com- 
pelled him  to  enter  into  negotiations.  On  June  25,  1807, 
die  two  emperors  met  on  a  raft  at  Tilsit.  Napoleon  was 
prepared  to  do  almost  anything  that  would  induce  Alex- 
ander to  cease  interfering  in  Europe.  An  offensive-defen- 
sive alliance  was  concluded,  whereby  Napoleon  agreed 
not  to  oppose  the  expulsion  of  the  Turk  or  Russia's 
concjuest  of  Constantinople.  The  czar  meant  to  carry 
out  the  treaty  in  letter  and  in  spirit,  but  he  soon  saw^  that 
Napoleon's  ambition  was  limitless,  and  that  he  was  play- 
ing with  his  ally.  This  was  evident  by  the  proposed  parti- 
tion of  Turkey :  nothing  came  of  it.  Still  he  accepted 
Napoleon's  invitation  to  a  conference  at  F.rfurt.  where  he 
was  received  by  the  French  Emperor  amid  a  court  com- 
posed of  sovereigns  and  princes.  A  convention  was 
signed  on  the  12th  of  October,  1808,  whereby  Alexander 


200 


promised  Napoleon  a  free  hand,  in  return  for  the  annexa- 
tion by  Russia  of  Finland  and  the   Turkish  provinces  on 

the  Danube. 

This  led  to  a   war  with   (ireat    liritain,   Sweden,  and 
Austria,    not    including    Turkey    and     Persia.       Russia 
ac(|uired  l^nland,  when  Alexander,  after  convoking  the 
Diet,  guaranteed  its  constitution,  privileges,  and  university. 
In  iSaj,  war  again  broke  out  between  Austria  and  1' ranee. 
By  the  terms  of  the  alliance,  Russia  had  agreed  to  furnish 
troops,  but  they  showed  that  they  did  not  relish  fighting 
with  the  French.     There  were  two  engagements ;  in  one 
of  these,  the  casualties  were  one  Russian  killed  and  two 
wounded.    By  an  oversight  of  Napoleon  the  Poles  serving 
under  him   were  to  cooperate  with   the   Russians,   and, 
far  from  doing  so,  they  often  came  to  blows.    The  Russian 
general  constantly  sent  complaints  to  the  czar.     Napoleon 
made  a  great  effort  to  appease  Alexander  by  assigning  to 
Russia   Fastern   (iallicia   with   a  poptilation   of  400,000. 
Alexander  declined  to  be  represented  in  the  peace  negotia- 
tions at  \Tenna.    Napoleon's  creation  of  the  Grand  Duke- 
dom of  Warsaw  was  a  constant  menace  to  Russia. 

Meanwhile  the  Russians  were  uniformly  victorious  in 
Turkey;  the  czar  concluded  peace  only  when  it  was 
evident  that  war  with  France  was  unavoidable,  and  that 
Russia  would  need  every  man.  It  was  on  this  account 
that  he  gave  easy  terms  to  the  hard-pressed  Sultan. 
Russia  annexed  r>essarabia.  part  of  Roumania,  Ismail, 
and  Kilia  on  the  Lower  Danube. 

The  time  for  the  momentous  struggle  had  arrived. 
Napoleon,  the  master  of  Continental  Europe,  thought  that 
he  was  more  than  a  match  for  serf-ridden  Russia.     He 


201 


reckoned  upon  the  echo  which  the  words  libertv,  equality, 
and  fraternity,  would  awaken  in  the  hearts  of  the  moujik, 
and  forgot  that  they  were  abstract  ideas  which  to  the  serf, 
struggling  for  enough  black  bread  to  allay  the  cravings 
of  hunger,  were  so  many  empty  sounds.  He  tried  to 
arouse  Europe's  suspicions  of  Russia's  designs,  not  think- 
ing that  any  yoke,  even  that  of  the  Tartars,  would  be  a 
welcome  relief  to  nations  mourning  for  the  slaughter  of 
their  sons. 

Nai)oleon  left  Paris  for  Dresden  on  the  9th  of  May, 
181 2  ;  on  the  first  of  June  an  army  of  678,000  men,  includ- 
ing 60,000  Poles,  stood  ready  to  invade  Russia.  Alex- 
ander had  only  150,000  men  under  liagration  and 
Barclay  de  Tolly,  90,000  posted  on  the  Niemen,  and 
60,000  on  the  \'istula ;  but  he  issued  a  proclamation 
announcing  a  Holy  War.  "  Rise  all  of  you !  "  he  urged, 
**  With  the  Cross  in  your  hearts  and  arms  in  your  hands, 
no  human  force  can  prevail  against  you !  " 

Napoleon  advanced  clutching  shadows.  After  his  army 
left  Wihia,  leaving  dead  desolation  in  its  wake,  the  time 
soon  came  when  retreat  was  no  longer  possible.  Russian 
patriotism  clamored  for  battle  and  Russian  prudence  had 
to  give  way  to  it.  All  of  Koutouzofs  remarkable  in- 
fluence was  required  to  restrain  his  men  under  the  retreat 
which  foretold  victory,  because  every  step  forward  sealed 
Napoleon's  doom.  The  Corsican  knew  it  but,  with  the 
superstition  born  in  him,  trusted  to  his  star.  Finally 
he  drew  near  M(xscow,  the  Holy  City,  where  Count 
Rostopchine,  the  governor,  was  preparing  the  grand 
climax  of  the  drama,  while  pacifying  Russian  patriotism 
by  a  series  of  hardv  falsehoods.     '*  I  have  resolved,"  he 


202 

explained,  "  at  every  disagreeable  piece  of  news  to  raise 
doubts  as  to  its  trutb  :  by  this  means,  I  shall  weaken  the 
first   impression,  and  before  there   is  time  to  verify   it, 
others  will  come  which  will  require  investiiration."     The 
people    implicitly   believed   his    most    darin-    inventions. 
When  he  evactiated  Moscow,  he  ordered  all  prisons  to  be 
opened,  and   the  Ki"i>   i"  ^he  arsenal   to  be   distribtited 
among  the  people ;  he  also  had  the  i>umps  removed  and 
finally  gave  instructions  to  set  fire  to  the  stores  of  vodka 
and  die  boats  loaded  with  alcohol. 

Napoleon    arrived    at    the    Kremlin    on    the    14th    of 
September.     Short  as  was  his  sojourn,  it  was  widi  diffi- 
culty that  he  escaped  through  the  tlames  and  found  refuge 
iu  a  park.     W'hv  did  he  waste  thirty-five  days   in   the 
charred   capital?     Was   it  belief   in  his   star,  or   was  it 
despair  at  the  ruin  of  his  prospects?     On  the   13th  of 
October,  tlie  remnant  of  the  Oand  Army  started  on  its 
loner  journev  over  the  desert  it  had  left  behind,  because 
all  other  roads  were  closed  to  it.     The  retreat  has  been 
described  bv  manv  writers;  but  what  pen  shall  do  justice 
to  the  suffering  caused  by  the  unusually  severe  winter, 
the  snow,  the  ice,  the  hunger,  an.l  the  diirst?     And  how 
tiianv  hearts  were  rent,  when  the  ncu.s  came  of  die  dead, 
the  wounded,  and  the  missing?     Xapoleon's  campaign  in 
Russia  was  the  most  impressive  sermoti  acrainst  war,  but 
it  fell  upon  heedless  ears. 

\fter  the  liattle  of  the  Berezina,  Napoleon  left  the 
armv  and  hurried  home.  All  his  thoughts  were  on  the 
eft-ect  of  die  disastrous  defeat,-not  upon  the  hundred 
thousand  desolate  homes,  but  upon  his  own  fortunes.  He 
arrived  in  Paris  where  he  gathered  450.000  men,  many  ot 


\ 


203 

them  mere  youths,  to  support  him  with  their  blood.    But 
Europe  was  weary  of  slaughter.     Kings  might  tremble 
for  dieir  crowns,  it  was  die  people,  aroused  to  frenzy, 
that    impelled    them    to    action.      On    Napoleon's   heels, 
besides,  there  was  a  bloodhound  whom  nobler  instincts 
than  mere  self-preservation  inspired  to  ceaseless  pursuit. 
Alexander  I,  at  diis  time,  earned  and  deserved  the  glorious 
surname  of  The  Well-beloved.     Not  a  thought  of  self- 
glory  or  personal  aggrandizement  sullied  the  relentless 
chase.      Emperors    and    kings    dreading   the    awakened 
conscience  of  the  people  would  have  made  peace,  and 
they  could  have  done  so  with   security   for  themselves, 
but  Alexander  said,  ''  No !  "    Under  fire  at  the  four  days' 
battle  of  Leipzig,  he  personally  directed  reenforcements 
where    they    were    required.      And    when,    at    last,    the 
host  of  invaders  stepped  on  the  soil  whose  people  during 
twenty  years  had  committed  outrages   in  almost  every 
known  country  of  Europe,  they  were  noble  words  which 
the    Autocrat    addressed    to   his    troops    whom    he    had 
brought  so   far   away   from  home.     "  By   invading  our 
empire,"  he  says,  "  the  enemy  has  done  us  much  harm, 
and  has  therefore  been  subjected  to  a  terrible  chastise- 
ment.    The  anger  of  Ciod  has  overthrown  liim.     Do  not 
let  us   imitate  him.     The   merciful   God   does  not  love 
cruel  and  inhuman  men.     Let  us  forget  the  evil  he  has 
wrought:  let  us  carry  to  our  foes,  not  vengeance  and 
hate,  but  friendship,  and  a  hand  extended  in  peace." 

These  were  not  mere  words;  Alexander  die  Well- 
beloved  was  sincere.  But  it  was  he  who  refused  to 
receive  Napoleon's  envoy  at. Freiburg,  and  it  was  he 
who,  when  Napoleon,  fighting  like  a  tiger  at  bay,  was 


204 

defeating  the  separated  armies,  so  that  the  British  envoy 
urged  to  come  to  terms  with  him,  answered.  *'  It  would 
not  be  a  peace  but  a  truce.  I  cannot  come  four  hundred 
leagues  to  your  assistance  every  day.  Xo  peace,  so  long 
as  Napoleon  is  on  the  throne!"  I'v  his  direction  the 
united  armies  rolled  like  an  avaianciic  upon  Paris, — and 
Napoleon  gave  up  the  struggle  by  abdicating. 

Again  it  was  Alexander  the  W'ell-bclnvrd  who  inter- 
vened when  other  powers  would  have  overwhelmed  the 
fallen  colossus.  It  was  Alexander  who  ])rocured  for  his 
enemv  the  sovereignty  of  the  island  of  l^lba,  and  com- 
missioned Count  Schouvalof  to  escort  him.  '*  I  confide 
to  you  a  great  mission  ;  "  he  said ;  "  you  will  answer 
to  me  with  your  head  for  a  single  hair  which  falls  from 
the  head  of  Napoleon." 

At  the  Congress  of  Menna  assembled  the  statesmen 
to  dispose  of  nations  and  peoples,  as  their  own  ambition 
prompted.  Alexander  desired  to  unite  Poland  to  his 
crown,  but  separate  from  Russia;  but  was  opposed  by 
Austria,  Cireat  I'ritain,  and  hVance,  who  entered  into 
a  secret  alliance  against  him.  Had  Napoleon  waited  two 
hundred  days  instead  of  half  that  time,  who  kn<nvs  that 
he  might  not  yet  have  been  the  arbiter  of  Europe?  Mis 
descent  united  all  factions,  and  Alexander  declared  that 
he  w^ould  pursue  Napoleon  "  down  to  his  last  man  and  his 

last  ruble." 

Once  again  armies  were  set  in  motion,  and  once  again 
Napoleon  resorted  to  his  well-known  tactics  of  destroying 
his  enemies  one  by  one.  He  failed  at  Waterloo.  (June 
17,  1815.)  Again  the  allies  re-entered  Paris,  the  IVus- 
sians  first  but  closely  followed  by  the  czar  and  his  army. 


205 


**  Justice,  but  no  revenge!  "  ])roclaimed  Alexander  when 
liliicher  would  have  followed  Napoleon's  example  of 
robbing  a  country  of  its  works  of  art.  The  czar  stood 
the  friend  of  hVance  when  Prussia  demanded  a  frontier 
which  would  render  her  safe  from  French  invasion;  but 
he  said  frankly  that  he  '*  wished  to  allow  some  danger 
to  exist  on  that  side,  so  that  Cermany,  having  need  of 
Russia,  might  remain  dependent."  He  was  in  favor  of 
allowing  the  rVench  to  select  their  ow^n  government,  but 
was  overruled.  At  last  the  allies  came  to  an  understand- 
ing, and  Poland  was  joined  to  the  Russian  Crown. 

The  Polish  soldiers  who  had  fought  so  bravely  under 
Nai)ole()n,  placed  themselves  at  the  czar's  service,  hoping 
and  trusting  that  their  country  w^ould  revive  under  a 
Russian  king.  Alexander's  promises  at  \'ienna  had 
been  vague,  but  recent  events  had  made  a  deep  impres- 
sion ui)on  him.  In  this  frame  of  mind,  he  directed  that 
Poland  be  restored.  This  was  announced  on  the  21st  of 
June,  at  Warsaw  amid  the  roar  of  cannon.  Constantine, 
Alexander's  ])r()ther,  was  made  King,  and  a  legislative 
body,  com])osed  of  a  senate  and  house  of  representatives, 
was  formed  under  a  constitution  which  also  guaranteed 
the  freedom  of  the  press. 

Thus  Alexander  returned  to  Russia.  Soon  after  that 
he  gave  evidence  that  strong  emotions  were  required  to 
subdue  the  inborn  prejudice  in  favor  of  autocracy.  Rus- 
sia, of  necessity,  had  accpiired  an  overwhelming  influence 
in  Europe.  This  showed  at  the  several  Congresses,  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1818,  at  Carlsbad  in  1819,  at  Troppau 
in  1820,  and  at  Verona  in  1822.  The  crowned  heads  of 
Europe  appeared  unable  to  comprehend  that  the  French 


2o6 


revolution,  with  its  orc^ies  of  blood  and  tears,  had  pro- 
duced an  impassable  abyss  between  the  ei.i^diteenth  and 
nineteenth  centuries.     They  wished  to  return  to  the  con- 
ditions prevailing  before  the  revolution,  which  caused  the 
success  of  that  upheaval ;  but  the  people,  the  masses,  had 
quaffed  of  the  cup  of  liberty,  and  the  taste  linp:ered.    The 
Holy  Alliance  with  its  unholy  aims  mij^ht  ordain  what  it 
pleased,  the  people  obstinately  refused  to  resume  the  place 
of  beasts  of  burden  for  the  benefit  of  the  State.     Thus  a 
spirit  of   unrest   was   perceptible,   and   when    Alexander 
learned  that  his  '*  1,  the  czar,  will  it!"  was  not  able  to 
restore  quiet,  he  joined  the  other  crowned  headh  m  their 
strui^gle  against  more  liberal  ideas.     From  that  time  his 
conduct  changed. 

There  was  evidence  of  this  in  the  events  occuring  in 
the  south.    The  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Balkan 
provinces  of  Turkey  belonged  to  the  Oeek  Church,  and 
looked    to    Alexander    for    relief    from    the    oppressive 
Mahomedan  >  oke.    The  Servians  took  up  arms,  the  people 
of   Greece    did   the   same.     On   Easter   day,    1821.    the 
Patriarch  of  the  Greek  Church  at  Constantinople  was 
seized  at  the  altar,  and  hung  in  his  vestment  at  the  door 
of  the  church.     Three  metropolitans  and  eight  bishops 
were  also  murdered.     The  news  caused  deep  indignation 
in  Russia,  but  Alexander  moved  not.     He  believed  in  the 
theor\'   that  no  people   should  be   encouraged   in   rising 
against  its  ordained  masters.     In  Russia  all  liberal  ideas 
w^ere  rigidly  suppressed. 

In  1825,  Alexander  left  St.  Petersburg  for  the  south 
where  he  intended  to  spend  some  time.  He  was  full  of 
gloomy   forebodings   and   gave   further   evidence  of   an 


i 


207 

unsound  mind  by  having  a  mass  for  the  dead  sung  in  his 
presence  in  broad  daylight.  While  in  the  Crimea  he  was 
heard  to  repeat :  "  They  may  say  what  they  like  of  me, 
but  I  have  lived  and  will  die  a  republican."  He  died  on 
the  19th  of  November,  1825,  while  on  his  journey. 

He  left  no   sons.      His   brother   Constantine   had   re- 
nounced the  crown  when  he  became  King  of   Poland, 
and    in    1823,    Alexander   had    made    his    next    brother 
Nicholas   his   successor.      Alexander's    reign    marked   a 
new   era   for  Russia   inasmuch   as   it   was  brought   into 
closer  contact  with  Europe,  and  promised  to  change  in 
thought  and  impulse,  from  an  Asiatic  into  a  European 
nation.    The  necessity  of  securing  the  help  of  the  masses 
against    Napoleon's    invasion    created    newspapers,    and 
writers    of    unusual    ability    expressed    their    patriotic 
thoughts   in  prose  and   poetry.      In    1814,   the   Imperial 
Library  was  opened  to  the  public  at  St.  Petersburg.     It 
contained  at  that  time  242,000  volumes,  and  about  10,000 

manuscripts. 

In  1803,  Captains  Krusenstern  and  Lisianski  made  the 
first  Russian  vovage  around  the  world  in  the  Nadcjda 
(the  Hope),  and  the  Ncra.  It  was  on  this  occasion  that 
Russia  entered  into  relations  with  the  United  States. 


XXIII— AX  EVEXTFUL  PERIOD 

ALEXAXDER'S  will  came  as  a  surprise  upon 
Xicholas,  but  Constantine  was  loyal  to  his  promise 
and  after  a  brief  but  <^cnerous  contest,  Xicholas  was 
crowned  at  Moscow.  Twenty-three  days  had  elapsed 
since  Alexander's  death,  lons^  enough  to  show  that  the 
spirit  of  unrest  had  penetrated  into  Russia.  On  the  2r)th 
of  December  there  were  some  disturbances  at  Moscow, 
but  they  were  suppressed  without  great  trouble.  The 
secret  police  hunted  down  the  leaders,  many  of  whom 
were  known  in  art  or  literature,  but  they  suffered  death. 
Xicholas,  a  man  of  colossal  stature,  commanding  appear- 
ance, iron  will,  passion  for  a  military  life,  of  simple  and 
correct  habits,  was  a  true  champion  of  the  right  divine 
of  kings.  He  had  neither  sympathy  nor  patience  wdth 
any  movement  tending  toward  greater  liberty  for  the 
people.  Xevertheless  Xicholas  was  much  more  popular 
than  Alexander  had  been,  because  he  was  the  type  of  the 
Russian  czars,  who  had  increased  Russia's  power  and 
territory. 

Xot  many  days  after  his  coronation,  Xicholas  became 
involved  in  a  quarrel  with  the  Shah  of  Persia.  In  vain 
did  the  shah  call  upon  (ireat  P.ritain  for  hel]> ;  the  Per- 
sians were  twice  defeated  in  1826,  and  the  Russians  were 

208 


I 


209 

on  the  road  to  Teheran  when  the  shah  preferred  to  save 
his  capital  by  ceding  two  provinces,  and  paying  a  heavy 
indemnitv  in  1828.  The  following  year,  the  Russian 
Minister  at  Teheran  was  nnirdered,  but  Persia  escaped 
with  a  humble  ai)ology. 

Turkev,  too,  was  made  to  feel  Xicholas'  heavy  hand; 
urged  by  other  powers  the  sultan  submitted  to  the  loss 
of  territory  in  Asia,  which  had  been  in  dispute,  and  per- 
mitted the  free  passage  of  Russian  vessels  between  the 
P»lack  Sea  and  the  Mediterranean.  (Convention  of 
Akkerman,  Oct.  8,  1826.)  The  czar,  after  this,  took  up 
the  (ireek  question,  and  entered  into  an  agreement  with 
Enirland  and  France.  In  vain  did  the  sultan  offer  the 
plea  which  had  been  successful  with  Alexander,  that  the 
Greeks  "  violated  the  passive  obedience  owed  by  subjects 
to  their  legitimate  sovereigns."  Xicholas  wanted  Turkey 
for  himself,  and  proposed  to  leave  no  stone  unturned  to 
secure  possession  of  Constantinople. 

After  the  battle  of  Xavarino,  on  the  20th  of  October, 
1827,  where  the  allied  forces  destroyed  the  Turkish  fleet. 
England  withdrew,  suspicious  of  Xicholas'  schemes;  but 
I'rance  and  Russia  continued  the  war  until  by  the  Peace 
of  Adrianople,  the  sultan  recognized  the  independence  of 
(Ireece, — and  ceded  to  Russia  four  fortresses  in  Asia 
and  the  islands  in  the  delta  of  the  Danube.  Russia  was 
thus  in  possession  of  the  whole  southern  slope  of  the 
Caucasus,  besides  holding  part  of  its  northern  front. 
The  czar  began  war  upon  the  tribes  dwelling  in  the 
mountains,  but  found  that  he  had  engaged  in  a  very  diffi- 
cult enterprise.  A  soldier-priest  named  Schamyl  defied 
the  power  of  Russia  for  a  quarter  of  a  century.     It  cost 


210 


Nicholas  more  in  men  and  money  to  subdue  the  liberty- 
lovini;  mountaineer,  than  all  the  wars  he  wa^ed  in  Asia. 

The  year  1830,  was  one  of  j^reat  unrest  in  Europe. 
Nicholas  was  deeply  angered  when  his  friend  Charles  X 
of  France  was  expelled.  The  revolution  in  Paris  was  the 
signal  for  a  similar  movement  in  the  capital  of  Poland. 
Owing  to  the  independent  expression  of  opinion  in  the 
Diet,  Alexander  had  adjourned  that  body  indefinitely  in 
1822.  At  the  same  time  the  liberty  of  the  press  was 
revoked  and  the  police  assumed  a  power  in  defiance  of 
the  law.  The  Grand  Duke  Constantine  was  really  a 
friend  of  Poland,  but  he  was  eccentric  and  inpetuous 
and  often  unconsciously  gave  ofTense.  In  1830,  Nicholas 
came  to  Warsaw  to  open  the  Diet,  when  its  members 
made  demands  which  he  could  not  grant.  IJoth  sides 
were  angry  when  Nicholas  returned  to  St.  Petersburg. 

As  soon  as  the  French  tricolor  was  raised  above  the 
consulate  at  Warsaw,  the  trouble  commenced.  Taken 
unprepared,  Constantine  withdrew  with  his  troops. 
Again  the  Poles  were  divided ;  the  patriots  advised  recon- 
ciliation with  Russia,  while  hotheads  demanded  the 
abdication  of  the  Romanofs.  The  first  party  sent  a  depu- 
tation to  St.  Petersburg  and  another  to  Paris  and  Lon- 
don, to  secure  mediation.  The  czar's  answer  was 
decisive ;  he  absolutely  refused  to  **  make  concessions 
(to  the  revolutionists),  as  the  price  of  their  crimes." 
Again,  too,  there  was  discord  among  the  leaders  as  they 
entered  upon  a  life  or  death  struggle.  Poland  appealed 
to  Europe.  The  people  were  sympathetic,  but  the  gov- 
ernments, rejoicing  at  seeing  a  revolutionary  movement 
suppressed,  refused  to  interfere. 


2TT 


In  February,  183 1,  a  Russian  army  of  130,000  men 
invaded  Poland.  The  Poles  showed  a  heroism  which 
appealed  to  the  i)eople  of  Europe,  but  more  than  sym- 
pathy was  needed  to  arrest  the  irresistible  Russian 
advance  upon  Warsaw.  Constantine  and  the  Russian 
commander-in-chief  fell  the  victims  of  cholera,  but  an 
epidemic  of  discord  struck  Poland  and  sealed  its  fate. 
On  the  6th  of  September,  Warsaw  was  invested.  The 
capital  was  forced  to  surrender.  '*  Warsaw  is  at  your 
feet,"  wrote  the  commander-in-chief  to  the  czar,  who 
lost  no  time  in  trampling  upon  the  conquered.  The  con- 
stitution was  abrogated,  the  Diet,  a  thing  of  the  past. 
Poland  was  no  more.  Where  it  had  stood,  was  a  Russian 
province.  Russian  officials  introduced  Russian  taxes, 
Russian  coinage,  and  Russian  justice  such  as  it  was. 
The  Poles  saw  samples  of  it  when  thousands  were 
arrested  widiout  process  of  law,  and  were  sent  to 
pri.son  or  to  Siberia,  while  other  thousands  lost  their 
l)roperty  by  confiscation.  In  White  Russia  and  Lithuania 
the  use  of  the  Polish  language  was  prohibited  and  the 
Catholic  Clergy  were  forced  to  "  ask;'  admittance  to  the 
bosom  of  the  Greek  Church.  It  must  be  admitted  that 
the  Polish  peasants  benefited  by  the  change.  With  a  view 
of  reducing  the  influence  of  the  nobles,  the  government 
issued  regulations  protecting  the  laborer  against  the 
landowner. 

The  Polish  revolution  caused  the  reorganization  of 
European  policies.  Austria  and  Prussia,  each  in  posses- 
sion of  territory  that  formerly  belonged  to  Poland, 
entered  into  friendly  relations  with  Russia,  whereas  Eng- 
land  and    France,   where   public   opinion   could    not   be 


212 


ignored,  drew  more  closely  together.  Nicholas  was 
posing  as  the  arbiter  of  luirope  and  the  champion  of 
kings.  He  assumed  the  right  to  command,  hut  would 
soon  find  his  will  C()nteste<l. 

This  was  brought  home  to  him  in  l^^32,  when  trouble 
broke  out  between  Turkey  and  ICgypt.  The  I\gyi)tian 
armv  was  victorious  and  threatened  Constantinople, 
when  the  sultan  appealed  to  the  powers.  Russia 
responiled  at  once  by  sending  two  armies,  but  a  strong 
protest  from  England  and  h>ance  caused  the  withdrawal 
of  the  troops  of  Russia  as  well  as  those  of  Kgypt.  Raf- 
fled, Nicholas  on  June  3,  1833,  entered  into  an  ofifensive- 
defensive  alliance  with  the  sultan,  which  really  i)lace(l 
Turkey  and  with  it  Constantinople  in  Russia's  i)Ower. 
Another  sharp  protest  from  England  and  bVance 
prevented  the  consummation  of  the  alliance. 

In  1839  the  trouble  between  Turkey  and  Egypt  recom- 
menced when  Creat  liritain,  anxious  to  preserve  Tur- 
key's integrity,  entered  into  an  agreement  with  Russia, 
Austria  and  Prussia,  which  was  signed  at  London  in 
Julv,  1840.  There  was  sr^iK*  danger  of  a  war  with 
Erance  but  England,  fearmg  Russia's  designs,  returned 
to  her  former  ally.  liy  the  Convention  of  July  13,  1841, 
Russia's  designs  upon  old  Czargrad  were  postponed  until 
a  more  favorable  opportunity.  In  1844,  Nicholas  visited 
England,  but  his  recej)tion  in  London  was  cool.  He, 
however,  entered  into  an  agreement  whereby  the  Khan- 
ates of  Central  Asia  should  remain  neutral  ground 
between  Russia  and  India. 

In  1846,  trouble  broke  out  in  (iallicia,  where  the  Poles 
rose  against  Austria ;  but  as  the  nobles  had  to  subdue 


213 


a  revolt  of  their  own  peasants,  order  was  quickly  re- 
stored. The  free  city  Cracow  was  the  resort  of  the  Poles. 
Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia  sent  troops  against  it,  and 
Cracow  was  annexed  by  Austria  notwithstanding  a  pro- 
test from  England  and  Erance. 

The  year  1848  will  long  be  remembered  for  the  blows 
bestowed  upon  the  divine  right  of  kings,  and  the  privi- 
leges which  the  sovereigns  were  compelled  to  concede  to 
the  people.  The  Em])eror  Eerdinand  of  Austria  was 
expelled  from  his  capital,  and  the  King  of  Prussia  was 
subjected  to  humiliation  by  his  own  people.  Erance  pro- 
claimed the  republic,  and  Nicholas  proclaimed  himself 
tlie  champion  of  the  right  divine.  He  dispatched  an 
army  into  Hungary,  which  was  soon  "  at  the  feet  of 
your  Majesty,"  and  felt  the  wrath  of  the  frightened 
Ferdinand. 

Notwithstanding  this  cooperation,  the  understanding 
among  the  three  powers,  Russia,  Austria  and  Prussia, 
was  giving  wav  before  individual  interests.  When,  in 
1852,  Prussia  attempted  to  seize  the  German  provinces 
of  Denmark,  it  was  Nicholas  who  compelled  her  to  with- 
draw. On  the  8th  of  May  of  that  year,  the  independence 
and  integrity  of  Denmark  were  recognized  by  the  Treaty 
of  London. 

In  the  same  year  Louis  Napoleon  made  an  end  to  the 
Erench  Republic  by  the  notorious  Coup  t/'  Etat.  This 
gave  great  satisfaction  to  the  czar  who  was  heard  to 
remark :  "  Erance  has  set  an  evil  example ;  she  will  now 
set  a  good  one.  I  have  faith  in  the  conduct  of  Louis 
Napoleon."  The  new  emperor  of  Erance  did  not  seem 
to  appreciate  this  condescension,  or  else  he  showed  gross 
Sto.  ok  Russia — 14 


214 

ingratitude  when  France  and  Austria,  without  even  con- 
sulting Nicholas,  settled  some  troubles  in  Turkev.  The 
czar  sent  Mcnzikoff  as  s])ecial  envoy  to  Constantin()j)le 
to  demand  a  new  uealy  whereby  Russia's  rights  as  Pro- 
tector of  the  (ireek  Christians  should  be  recognized. 
Supported  as  he  was  by  hVance,  the  sultan  refused. 
Nicholas  then  had  a  plain  talk  with  Sir  Hamilton  Sey- 
mour, the  British  Minister  at  St.  Petersburg,  wherein  he 
revealed  his  designs  upon  Turkey.  As  to  Constantinople, 
he  said,  he  might  establish  himself  there  as  a  trustee,  but 
not  as  a  proprietor.  Sir  Hamilton,  as  in  duty  bound, 
notified  his  government,  and  England  hastened  to  join 
France  in  opposing  Russia. 

Pretending  that  all  he  wanted  was  a  recognition  of  his 
rights,  Nicholas,  on  the  3(1  of  July,  1853,  sent  an  army 
under  Gortchakof  across  the  Pruth.  At  this  an  allied 
British-French  fleet  took  up  a  position  near  the  threat- 
ened point,  but  did  not  cross  the  Straits,  which  would 
have  been  a  violation  of  the  treaty.  Nicholas  stormed; 
he  declared  that  "  This  was  a  threat  "  and  would  lead  to 
complications.  Austria  proposed  a  conference  at  which 
Russia,  Great  I'ritain,  France,  Austria  and  Prussia 
assisted.  It  seemed  as  if  peace  would  be  secured,  when 
the  sultan  demanded  that  the  Russian  forces  should 
withdraw,  whereupon  Admiral  Nakhimof,  on  the  30th 
of  November,  1853,  destroyed  the  Turkish  fleet  at  Sinope. 
The  British-French  fleet  then  sailed  into  the  Black  Sea, 
and  the  Russian  ships  sought  shelter  in  the  ports. 

In  January,  1854,  Napoleon  III  made  a  last  attempt  at 
maintaining  peace,  but  Nicholas  was  thoroughly  angry 
at  the  publication  of  Seymour's  dispatches,  claiming  that 


21 


the  conversation  with  the  British  Minister  was  entitled 
to  secrecy  as  between  '*  a  friend  and  a  gentleman."  Aus- 
tria and  Prussia  resented  the  contempt  which  the  czar 
had  expressed  for  them,  and  on  the  loth  of  April  Eng- 
land and  France  entered  into  an  oflfensive-defensive  alli- 
ance. Ten  days  later  Austria  and  Prussia  arrived  at  a 
written  agreement  providing  for  the  possibility  that  the 
Russians  should  attack  Austria  or  cross  the  Balkans. 
Nicholas  had  aroused  all  Europe  against  him. 

The  Russian  fleet  was  unable  to  cope  with  that  of  the 
allies,  and  thus  condemned  to  inactivity  in  the  ports. 
After  heroic  efforts,  the  Russians  were  compelled  to  raise 
the  siege  of  Silistria,  and  to  retire  from  the  Danube, 
while  Austria  occui)ied  the  evacuated  territory.  But 
Nicholas  was  dismayed  when,  after  a  conference  on  July 
21,  1854,  the  allied  commanders  resolved  to  attack  the 
Crimea.  Russia  i^'as  unprepared.  It  was  the  assault 
upon  Russia's  vaunted  "  holy  soil,"  which  gave  a  severe 
blow  to  the  arbiter  of  Europe,  at  home  as  well  as  abroad. 
Still  with  dogged  energy  the  Russians  worked  to  con- 
struct defenses.  On  the  14th  of  September  500  troop- 
ships landed  the  allied  armies,  and  on  the  20th,  the  Battle 
of  the  Alma  opened  the  road  to  Sebastopol.  The  port  of 
I'alaclava  was  captured  by  the  allies,  and  three  bloody 
battles  were  fought,  at  P>alaclava  on  the  25th  of  October, 
at  Inkermann  on  the  5th  of  November,  and  at  Eupatoria 
on  the  17th  of  February.  1855. 

It  seemed  as  if  the  knowledge  that  an  enemy  was  in 
Russia,  aroused  the  Russians  from  a  torpor.  Pamphlets 
and  other  publications  denouncing  the  government  in 
withering  terms,   seemed  to  spring  up   from  the  pave- 


2l6 


ment.  *'  Arise,  Oh  Russia !  "  says  one  unknown  writer, 
'*  Devoured  by  enemies,  ruined  by  slavery,  shamefully 
oppressed  by  the  stupidity  of  tchinovnik  and  spies, 
awaken  from  thy  long-  sleep  of  ignorance  and  apathy ! 
We  have  been  kept  in  bondage  long  enough  by  the  suc- 
cessors of  the  Tartar  khaiis.  Arise !  and  stand  erect  and 
calm  before  the  throne  of  the  despot ;  demand  of  him  a 
reckoning  for  the  national  misfortunes.  Tell  him  boldly 
that  his  throne  is  not  the  altar  of  God,  and  that  God  has 
not  condemned  us  to  be  slaves  forever." 

The  feeling  among  his  people  was  not  unknown  to 
Nicholas.  Whatever  may  be  said  of  him,  he  was  not 
weakling,  fool,  or  hypocrite,  and  it  was  no  disgrace 
that  he  felt  as  if  the  ground  were  giving  way  under  his 
feet.  He  was  upright  and  sincere,  and  had  lived  up  to 
his  convictions.  There  is  no  doubt  that  when  these  con- 
victions grew  dim,  his  strength  vanished.  He  was  heard 
to  exclaim  '*  My  successor  may  do  what  he  will :  I  can- 
not change."  The  sincerity  of  this  man  of  iron  showed 
in  his  losing  his  courage  when  doubts  arose.  Life  ceased 
to  have  any  value  for  him.  One  day,  in  February,  1855, 
while  suffering  from  a  severe  cold,  he  went  out  without 
his  overcoat.  To  the  physician  who  tried  to  restrain  him, 
he  said :  ''  You  have  done  your  duty ;  now  let  me  do 
mine !  "  A  serious  illness  followed,  and  he  sent  for  his 
successor  to  whom  he  gave  some  instructions.  As  a 
message  to  his  people,  and  a  last  cry  for  sympathy,  he 
dictated  the  dispatch  '*  The  emperor  is  dying,"  which 
was  sent  to  all  the  large  towns  of  Russia.  On  the  19th 
of  March,  1855,  Nicholas  I  was  dead. 

Under  his  directions  wealthv  merchants  were  classi- 


217 


fied  as  ''  chief  citizens,"  which  procured  for  them  exemp- 
tion from  poll-tax,  conscrii)tion,  and  corporal  punish- 
ment. They  might  take  part  in  the  assessment  of  real 
estate,  and^vere  eligible  to  the  offices  to  which  members 
of  the  first  class  were  entitled.  The  same  privilege  was 
extended  to  all  who  were  entitled  to  the  degree  of  Master 
of  Arts,  and  free-born  and  qualified  artists.  It  was  he 
who  built  the  first  railway  in  Russia,  by  drawing  a 
straight  line  between  Moscow  and  St.  Petersburg.  He 
also  joined  the  X'olga  and  the  Don  by  a  canal.  His  reign 
is  also  noted  for  the  progress  of  Russian  literature.  The 
works  of  Ivan  Tourguenief  are  known  throughout  the 
civilized  world. 


(2l8) 


Alexander  II 


XXIV— ALEXANDER  II,  THE  LIBERATOR 


ALEXANDER  II  was  thirty-seven  years  old  when  he 
succeeded  to  the  throne.  The  war  oppressed  Rus- 
sia, and  he  felt  that  peace  nnist  be  concluded.  But 
Russian  diplomacy  loves  die  tortuous  path.  The  first 
proclamation  of  the  czar  announced  that  he  promised 
**  to  accomplish  the  plans  and  desires  of  our  illustrious 
predecessors,  Peter,  Catherine,  Alexander  the  Well- 
beloved,  and  our  father  of  imperishable  memory."  It  was 
hoped  that  this  would  cause  the  other  powers  to  propose 
peace,  on  account  of  the  expense  of  the  war.  Indeed,  a 
conference  was  proposed  and  took  place  at  Vienna,  but 
the  demands  of  the  allies  were  not  so  modest  as  Russia 
expected ;  hence  the  war  continued,  and  with  it  the  siege 
of  Sebastopol. 

The  Danube  territory  was  lost  to  Russia  since,  on  the 
2d  December  1854,  Austria  had  undertaken  to  defend 
it,  and  Prussia  had  agreed  to  help  Austria.  But  Sebasto- 
pol was  stubbornly  defended.  In  the  latter  part  of 
August  1855,  874  guns  vomited  death  and  destruction 
upon  the  doomed  city  where  the  Russians  lost  18,000 
men.  The  Erench  had  dug  fifty  miles  of  trenches  during 
the  366  days  of  the  siege,  and  4,100  feet  of  mines  before 
a  single  bastion.     In  one  day  70000  bombs  and  shells 

219 


IJIS) 


Alexander  11 


XXI\  -ALKXAXDKR  II,  THE  LIliERATOR 


ALl'.X  AXDl^k  II  was  tliirtx -seven  years  old  when  he 
succeeded  to  tlie  throm-.  The  war  oppressed  Rus- 
sia, an<l  he  l\ll  ihaL  p<.-.u  ^  must  1)e  eonehided.  Ihit 
Russian  diplouiacv  loves  the  tortuous  i)ath.  The  hrst 
]»ritelam.'>ti(.n  of  the  czar  announced  that  he  promised 
"to  accomphsh  the  plans  and  desires  of  our  illustrious 
predecessors,  Peter,  Catherine.  Alexander  the  W'ell- 
hi'Ioved,  and  (tur  father  nf  inipcrislinhle  mcniory."  It  was 
hoped  that  this  would  cau.se  the  oiiier  p«»\\ers  to  ])r()])osc 
peace,  on  account  of  the  e.\])ense  of  the  war.  Indeed,  a 
conference  was  proposrd  and  to(»k  ])lace  at  \  ituna,  hut 
the  demands  of  the  allies  were  not  so  modest  as  Russia 
expected:  hence  the  war  contiiuted.  and  with  it  the  sieij^e 
i»f  Sebast(tpol. 

The  Oanuhe  territory  was  lost  to  Russia  since,  on  the 
Ji\  December  1*^54,  Austria  had  undertaken  to  defend 
it.  and  Prussia  had  agreed  to  hel])  Austria.  Put  Sebasto- 
pol  was  stubbornly  defended.  In  the  latter  i)art  of 
.\ui4Ust  11^53,  •'^74  i;uns  vomited  death  and  destruction 
upon  the  doomed  cit\  where  the  Russians  lost  |S.(X)0 
nu-n.  The  JM-ench  had  dn.^-  flftv  miles  of  triuches  durini^ 
the  V'^'  da\s  of  the  sieiic  and  4.100  feet  of  nn'nes  1)efore 
a  sint^le  ba>tion.      In   one   day   7()()()()  bombs   and   shells 

219 


220 


were  tired  into  the  town.     On  the  8th  of  September  the 
assault  was  ordered,  and  Sebastopol  fell. 

Again  Russia  tried  what  boasting  would  effect.  Gor- 
tchakof  declared  to  whoever  chose  to  believe  him  that  he 
would  not  voluntarily  al)andon  the  country  where  Saint 
Madimir  had  received  baptism,  and  the  official  news- 
paper atmounced  that  the  war  was  now  becoming  serious, 
and  that  Sebastopol  being  destroyed,  a  stronger  fortress 
would  be  built.  This  meant  that  Russia  was  anxious  to 
secure  favorable  terms.  The  war  had  cost  250,000  men, 
and  Russia's  credit  at  home  was  in  a  bad  condition. 
Austria  offered  the  basis  of  an  agreement  which  was 
accepted  by  Russia,  and  on  the  25th  of  February,  1856, 
a  Congress  met  at  Paris.  Five  days  later  the  Treaty  of 
Paris  was  signed.  Russia  renounced  the  right  of  pro- 
tecting the  Christians  in  the  Danubian  principalities,  and 
restored  the  delta  of  that  river.  The  Black  Sea  was 
opened  to  merchant  vessels  of  all  nations,  but  closed  to 
all  warships,  and  no  arsenals  were  to  be  constructed  on 
its  shores.  The  sultan  agreed  to  renew  the  privileges  of 
his  Christian  subjects,  but  with  the  understanding  that 
the  powers  should  not  find  cause  to  interfere.  It  was  a 
hard  blow  to  Russia's  prestige,  and  indefinitely  postponed 
the  execution  of  making  of  Russia  the  restored  Eastern 
Roman  Empire. 

Alexander,  in  many  respects,  was  the  opposite  of  his 
father;  he  seemed  more  like  his  uncle  in  his  younger 
days  when  he  earned  the  surname  of  Well-beloved.  It 
may  bo,  however,  that  Alexander  was  but  the  executor 
of  his  father's  instructions,  after  doubt  began  to  torture 
him.    It  is  known  that  Nicholas  had  seriouslv  considered 


221 


the  emancipation  of  the  serfs.  Alexander  took  it  up  in 
earnest.  There  were  two  serious  diflficulties,  namely,  the 
compensation  to  be  allowed  to  the  serf  owners,  and  the 
extent  of  the  soil  to  be  allotted  to  the  serfs.  It  must  be 
remembered  that,  although  the  peasant  had  become  re- 
signed to  serve  the  landowner,  his  proverb :  "  Our  backs 
are  the  owMier's,  but  the  soil  is  our  own,"  show^ed  how 
stubbornly  he  held  to  the  conviction  that  it  was  his  own 
land  which  he  cultivated,  however  little  profit  he  derived 
from  his  toil.  For  once  the  tchinovnik  dared  not  inter- 
fere; public  opinion  had  so  strongly  condemned  their 
incompetence  and  dishonesty  that  the  Russian  official  w^as 
glad  to  efface  himself ;  the  landowners,  on  the  other  hand, 
showed  little  enthusiasm.  They  knew  w^hat  their  revenues 
were,  but  not  what  they  would  be  under  altered  circum- 
stances. 

Soon  after  the  Treaty  of  Paris  had  restored  peace, 
Alexander  addressed  his  "  faithful  nobles  "  at  Moscow, 
inviting  them  to  consult  about  the  proper  measures  to 
be  taken  with  the  view^  to  emancipation.  When  this 
produced  no  results,  he  appointed  a  Committee,  ''  for 
the  amelioration  of  the  condition  of  the  peasants." 
The  nobles  of  Poland,  seeing  what  was  coming,  declared 
themselves  ready  to  emancipate  their  serfs.  The  czar 
gave  his  consent  and  the  ukase  containing  it  was  sent  to 
all  the  governors  and  marshals  of  the  nobility  "  for  your 
information,"  and  also  *'  for  your  instruction  if  the  nobles 
under  your  administration  should  express  the  same  in- 
tention as  those  of  the  three  Lithuanian  governments." 

The  press  supported  the  czar,  and  for  that  reason  was 
allowed  an  unusual  freedom  of  expression.    The  plan  was 


222 


formed  to  reconstruct  and  strcnj^then  the  national  nilr. 
This  was  favored  by  a  number  of  larj^e  landowners  who 
saw  in  this  plan  the  beginning  of  constitutional  liberty. 
The  czar  directed  that  committees  be  appointed  to 
examine  the  scheme. 

There  were  at  this  time  47,000,000  serf«^  of  whom  21,- 
000,000  belonged  to  private  landowners,  1,400,000  were 
domestic  servants,  and  the  rest  Crown  ])easants  who 
possessed  greater  i)rivileges  and  enjoyed  "^omc  degree  of 
self-government.  Their  local  affairs  were  administered 
by  the  mir  and  an  elected  council  w  ith  an  elder  as  execu- 
tive. They  were  judged  by  elected  courts,  that  is  juries, 
either  in  the  mir  court  or  in  that  of  the  volost  (district). 

Forty-six  committees  composed  of  1,336  land  and  serf- 
owners,  assembled  to  discuss  the  future  of  22,500,000 
serfs  and  of  120.000  owners.  These  committees  declared 
in  favor  of  emancipation,  but  could  not  agree  upon  the 
allowance  of  acreage  or  the  indemnity  to  the  owners. 
Another  committee  of  twelve  was  ai)pointed,  presided 
over  by  the  czar,  but  there  Alexander  met  considerable 
passive  opposition.  The  czar  made  a  journey  through 
the  provinces,  where  he  appealed  to  the  nobles,  warning 
them  that  "  reforms  came  better  from  alx)ve  than  below.'' 
After  his  return  another  committee  superior  in  authority 
to  the  one  existing  and  composed  of  friends  of 
emancipaticm  was  called.  Its  members,  inspired  by  the 
czar,  drafted  laws  whereby  emancii)ation  was  to  ])roceed 
at  once,  and  stringent  laws  were  made  to  i)revent  the  free 
peasant  from  again  becoming  a  serf,  and  to  make  of  him  a 
proprietor  upon  payment  of  an  indemnity.  On  the  3d 
of  March,  1861,  the  emancipation  ukase  was  published. 


223 


The  scheme,  as  is  evident,  was  fraught  with  difficulty. 
A  stroke  of  the  ])en  by  the  hand  of  the  czar  could  set  free 
millions  of  serfs,  but  all  the  czar's  ])ower  stopped  short 
of  endow  ing  the  serf  w  ith  the  dignity  and  responsibility, 
which  are  the  freeman's  birthright,  h'or  more  than  a 
centurv  and  a  half,  the  moujik  had  been  a  beast  of  burden, 
toiling  as  he  was  bid,  and  finding  recreation  only  in 
besotting  himself  with  strong  drink  whenever  he  could 
find  the  means  to  indulge.  Mental  faculties,  save  such 
as  are  insei)arable  from  animal  instinct,  had  lain  dormant ; 
moral  j)erception  was  limited  between  the  knout  on  one 
side,  and  gross  superstition  on  the  other.  Could  such  a 
being  be  intrusted  with  life  and  pro])erty  ?  When  the 
serf,  brutalized  by  generations  of  oppression,  should  come 
to  understand  that  he  was  free  to  do  as  he  pleased,  and 
that  the  hovel  where  he  and  his  brood  were  styed  was 
his  to  do  with  as  he  pleased,  what  could  he  be  expected 
to  do?*  Would  he  not  seize  the  opportunity  to  indulge  in 
his  favorite  craving,  and,  having  sold  his  property,  swell 
the  army  of  homeless  vagabonds  ? 

The  mir  was  the  only  means  to  prevent  this,  and  mir 
meant  serfdom  under  anodier  name.  The  landowners 
(lis])ose(l  of  their  land,  or  of  so  much  as  was  required  to 
support  the  ])easants,  not  to  individuals  but  to  the  mir. 
To  indemnify  the  owners,  the  mir  could  secure  a  loan 
whereby  the  debt  was  transferred  from  the  owner  to  the 
government,  and  the  mir  was  responsible  for  its  payment 
as  well  as  for  the  taxes.  The  moujik,  as  part  of  the  mir, 
was  responsible  to  the  community  for  his  share  of  the 
debt,  and  was  not  allowed  to  leave  his  village  without 
a  written  permission  from  the  starost  or  elder.     He  was, 


224 

therefore,  in  a  worse  position  than  hefore  the  emancipa- 
tion because  in  time  of  distress  it  was  his  lord's  interest 
to  support  him,  whereas  after  it  he  had  to  deal  with  a 
soulless  government  that  demanded  the  taxes  regardless 
of  circumstances.  The  mir  might  succeed  so  long  as  the 
peasant  remained  in  a  state  of  tutelage;  education  only 
could  lift  him  out  of  this, — but  this  means  was  not  con- 
sidered by  the  government. 

But  whatever  may  have  been  Alexander's  intentions, 
the  men  charged  with  their  execution  had  no  sympathy 
with  the  moujik.  The  question  never  occurred  to  them: 
How  shall  we  raise  the  peasant  from  his  degradation? 
The  problem  before  them  was,  how  he  should  be  made  to 
support  the  State,  as  he  had  done  before.  The  Russian 
statesmen  had  no  conception  of  the  truth  that  the  wealth 
of  a  State  is  guaged  by  the  prosperity  of  the  people. 

As  to  the  serf,  he  did  not  consider  that  a  boon  had  been 
bestowed  ujxm  him.  The  soil  and  the  hovel  were  his. 
descended  to  him  from  his  forbears!  Why,  then,  should 
he  pay  for  them?  He  clung  to  this  idea  with  all  the  stub- 
bornness inplanted  by  a  sense  of  justice  upon  a  limited 
intelligence.  It  had  been  hammered  into  his  head  that 
the  Little  Father  at  St.  Petersburg  was  conferring  a  favor 
upon  him,  and  this  was  within  his  limited  conception; 
but  when  he  heard  what  the  favor  was,  the  only  solution 
which  his  cunning  brain  could  devise  was  that  the  nobles 
had  cheated  the  czar,  or  that  there  had  been  some  jug- 
gling with  the  ukase.  Thus  grave  disturbances  occurred. 
In  one  district,  that  of  Kazan,  10,000  men  rose  at  the  call 
of  the  moujik  Petrof.  who  promised  them  the  real  article 
of  libertv.    Tr(X)ps  were  called  out  and  a  hundred  peasants 


2-25 


besides  Petrof  were  shot.  Similar  disturbances  occurred 
in  other  provinces.  The  poor  moujik  did  not  know  that 
he  was  saddled  with  a  debt  which  neither  he  nor  his 
children  could  hope  to  pay  ;  but  he  did  know  that  he  was 
charged  with  a  debt  which  he  had  not  incurred. 

Nevertheless,  the  emancipation  was  a  step  forward. 
Under  the  liberal  impulse  then  rushing  irresistibly  over 
Russia's  broad  level  the  upper  classes  clamored  for 
reforms.  They  asked  for  the  re-estabilishment  of  the 
douma  as  the  beginning  of  a  constitutional  government, 
but  the  czar  was  not  prepared  to  grant  this,  and  he  was 
right  because  under  existing  circumstances  the  peasants 
would  have  to  be  disfranchized,— and  there  is  small  choice 
between  an  autocracy  and  an  oligarchy. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  reforms  in  the  judicial 
system,  introduced  by  Alexander  in  the  ukases  of  1862 
to  1865,  have  since  been  rescinded.     Secret  examinations 
were  displaced  by  open  sessions  of  the  courts,  and  crimi- 
nal  cases  were  decided  by  juries;  the  police  was   for- 
bidden to  examine  the  accused,  which  duty  was  placed 
into  the  hands  of  a  qualified  judge.     Appeals  could  be 
taken   to   a   higher   court,   and    the    Senate    acted    as   a 
Supreme   Court    in    the    last    resort.      Apart    from    this 
system  was  the  justice  of  the  i)eace  who  adjudged  ordi- 
nary  police   cases,   acted   as  an   arbitrator,   and   decided 
civil  suits  when  the  amount  involved  did  not  exceed  500 
rubles    ($250).      No    appeal    could    be    taken    in    cases 
involving  less  than  thirty  rubles  in  civil  suits,  or  fifteen 
rubles  or  three  days'  prison  in  police  offenses.     If  an 
appeal  was  taken  the  case  was  brought,  not  before  a 
higher  court,  but  before  the  collective  justices  of  the 


226 


peace  of  the  district,  whose  verdict  could  be  set  aside 
only  by  the  Senate. 

The  Russian  goubcniii,  governments,  were  divided 
into  districts  (o/r/V^t//).  The  imperial  ukase  of  1864, 
created  constz'os  or  district  assemblies  composed  of 
representatives  of  the  landed  ])roprietors  or  <^entlemen ; 
or  rural  communes  or  mirs,  and  of  the  towns.  These 
representatives  were  elected  every  three  years.  The 
assembly  appointed  an  executive  committee  which  is  in 
permanent  session,  but  the  zemstvo  assembles  once  a 
year.  Its  duties  are  strictly  limited  to  local  affairs,  such 
as  keeping-  roads  and  bridges  in  re])air;  to  watch  over 
education  and  sanitation,  to  re])ort  on  the  condition  of  the 
harvest,  and  to  guard  against  the  occurrence  of  famine. 
Above  the  district  zemstvo  is  the  goubernkoe  zemstvo  or 
provincial  assembly,  whose  members  are  elected  from  the 
district  zemstvos.  Its  duties  embrace  the  estimate  of  the 
provincial  budget,  and  a  general  supervision  over  the 
districts. 

Alexander  was  kindly  disposed  and  meant  to  do  well. 
He  showed  it  by  removing  the  barriers  erected  by  his 
father  between  Russia  and  western  Europe.  T^oreigners 
in  Russia  were  granted  civil  rights,  and  Russians  were 
allowed  to  travel  abroad.  The  universities  were  re- 
lieved of  restraints  and  Jews  who  had  learned  a  trade 
could  settle  where  they  ])leased.  All  these  reforms  were 
so  many  promises  of  a  new  era  for  Russia. 

Alexander  soon  found  out  that  his  concessions  only 
served  to  create  demands  for  more.  The  trouble  began 
in  Poland,  where  the  news  of  Nicholas'  death  was  re- 
ceived with  relief,   if  not  with  joy.     Great  hopes  were 


I 


22'; 

entertained  from  the  new  czar;  besides,  the  Europe  of 
1855  was  very  different  from  that  of  1825:  monarchs  had 
learned  the  lesson  that  the  i)eople  ])ossessed  inalienable 
rights.  Italy  had  shaken  off  the  encumbrance  of  a 
number  of  princelings, — and  was  the  better  for  it ; 
Austria  had  been  comi)elled  to  grant  self-government  to 
its  Hungarian  subjects ;  why,  then,  should  Poland  despair 
of  recovering  its  indei/cndence  ? 

It  was  Poland's  greatest  misfortune  that  her  best  sons 
were  always  divided  in  opinion  ;  many  of  them,  moreover, 
thought  that  Poland's  cause  should  command  the 
sacrifices  of  every  people.  They  forgot  that  their 
country  owed  its  downfall  to  itself  and  that,  whereas 
people  might  express  their  sympathy,  it  cannot  be  ex- 
pected that  they  shall  neglect  their  own  business  for  the 
sake  of  other  people.  Some  of  the  leaders  expected  that 
the  czar  would  grant  them  self-government,  and 
Alexander  might  have  done  so  after  some  time ;  but 
others  demanded  not  only  independence  but  that  Russia 
should  restore  the  parts  which  she  had  owned  for  so  many 
years  that  they  had  become  parts  of  the  empire.  The 
czar  dared  not  grant  such  a  request,  because  it  would 
have  produced  a  revolution  in  Russia,  besides  a  war  with 
Austria  and  Prussia,  since  those  powers  owned  part  of 
Poland.  He  was,  however,  willing  to  grant  important 
concessions  and  did  so.  In  h\^bruary  1863,  an  insur- 
rection broke  out,  and  Russian  troops  were  dispatched  to 
subdue  it.  The  Russians  acted  with  great  cruelty,  so 
that  England.  Erance,  and  Austria  protested  on  the  17th 
of  June.  Russia,  knowing  that  Prussia  would  come  to 
her  assistance  paid  no  attention,  and  in    1866,  Russian 


22^^ 


Poland  became  a  part  of  Russia.  The  Russian  lan.c:uap:e 
displaced  the  Polish,  and  Poland  is  no  Ioniser  even  a 
name  ;  it  is  a  memory  and  a  warning. — nntliini;  more. 

Ouite  different  was  Alexander's  treaiment  of  iMuland. 
In  1863,  he  convoked  the  Diet  of  that  ^rand  dukedom, 
where  nobility  and  |)eople  appreciated  the  (k\c:ree  of 
liberty  which  they  enjoyed.  The  government  did  not 
interfere  with  the  national  lanc^uai^^e  or  reli.i^non,  but  took 
measures  that  neither  should  spread  in  Russia. 

Alexander's  concessions  raised  the  ex])ectation  of  a 
constitution  among  those  who  knew  what  the  word 
implies,  including  the  students  at  the  universities.  These 
institutions  were  closed.  The  provincial  zemstvos  ex- 
ceeded their  authority.  That  of  Tver  demanded  the  con- 
vocation of  the  three  Estates ;  that  at  Toula  discussed  a 
national  assembly.  Was  it  Alexander  or  his  court  and 
ministers  who  bore  the  responsibility  for  the  suppressive 
means  that  w^re  employed?  It  may  be  that  the  attempts 
upon  his  life,  by  Karakozof  in  1866,  and  by  the  Pole 
Berezofski  at  Paris  in  1867,  embittered  him.  P.ut  his 
kindly  feeling  and  love  for  his  people,  taken  in  con- 
junction with  a  later  event,  warrant  the  belief  that  he  was 
ignorant. 


XXV— GREAT  EVENTS  DURING  ALEXANDER'S 

REIGN.     NIHILISM 


1)  RUSSIA'S  behavior  during  the  Polish  insurrection 
brought  her  into  a  close  friendship  with  Russia. 
The  result  was  seen  when  Austria  and  Prussia,  in  1864, 
invaded  the  (ierman  provinces  of  Denmark,  when  Russia 
prevented  intervention,  and  Denmark  lost  the  two  prov- 
inces by  the  Treaty  of  Menna,  October  30,  1864.  Soon 
after  Prussia  and  Austria  quarreled  about  the  spoils. 
The  countries  of  South  (iermany  supported  Austria. 
War  began  on  June  18,  1866,  and  little  over  two  months 
later,  on  August  2},,  1866,  it  ended  by  the  Peace  of 
Prague,  which  gave  to  Prussia  Hanover,  Schleswig- 
Holstein,  Hesse,  Nasssau,  and  the  city  of  Frankfort. 
Prussia  did  not  annex  Wurtemburg  in  compliment  to  the 
czar,  who  was  related  to  its  king  by  marriage. 

If  Russia  looked  carelessly  upon  Prussia's  growth,  not 
so  Napoleon  III  of  France.  He  saw  in  it  a  threat,  and  to 
offset  Prussia's  increase  of  power,  tried  to  secure  other 
territory.  It  was  evident  that  nothing  but  a  pretext  was 
needed  to  bring  on  war.  It  was  found,  and  Napoleon 
declared  war  on  July  15,  1870.  Once  again  it  was  Alex- 
ander who  protected  Prussia  on  the  east,  by  threatening 
Austria  which  would  gladly  have  seized  the  opportunity 


Sto.  ok  Russia — 15 


229 


130 


to  avenge  1866.  As  a  consequence  France  liad  to  fight 
the  whole  of  Germany ;  and  Russia  seized  the  oppor- 
tunity for  repucHating  the  treaty  of  Paris  of  1856,  which 
forhade  the  construction  of  arsenals  on  the  coast  of  the 
Black  Sea  and  did  not  permit  any  war  vessels  in  it.  None 
of  the  powers  felt  any  inclination  to  fight  Russia  single- 
handed,  but  Prussia  proposed  a  conference,  which  was 
held  at  London.  The  result  was  that  Russia  was  left  free 
in  the  Black  Sea,  but  the  sultan  has  the  right  to  close  the 
Dardanelles  to  warships. 

On  January  18,  1871,  the  King  of  Prussia  became 
German  Emperor,  and  in  the  following  year  the  Em- 
peror of  Russia,  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  and  the 
German  Emperor  met  at  X'ienna,  with  the  result  that  an 
alliance  was  concluded  among  the  three  powers. 

In  1867  Russia  resolved  to  dispose  of  its  possessions 
on  the  western  hemisphere  by  selling  Alaska,  a  territory 
covering  590,884  square  miles,  to  the  United  States.  In 
the  same  year  a  Slavophil  Congress  was  held  at  Moscow 
with  the  czar's  approval.  The  object  was  said  to  be  to 
unite  all  the  nations  of  Slav  origin  by  a  bond  of  friend- 
ship ;  but  the  real  purpose  was  to  bring  them  under  the 
rule  of  the  czar.  This  was  apparent  when  it  was  re- 
solved to  send  emissaries  among  the  Slavs  under  Turkish 
rule.  They  met  with  encouragement  in  Montenegro, 
Bulgaria,  Bosnia,  and  Herzegovina.  General  TgnatiefF, 
the  Russian  ambassador  at  Constantinople,  thought  that 
this  might  be  the  means  to  bring  about  the  longed-for 
annexation  of  the  old  Czargrad.  Me  worked  upon  the 
Turkish  subjects  belonging  to  the  Greek  Church,  but 
showed  his  hand  when,  under  his  decision,  the  P>ulgarians 


231 


were  released  from  the  authority  of  the  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople. In  1875,  the  Bulgarian  Christians  rose 
against  the  Turkish  tax-farmers.  The  revolt  was  fanned 
by  the  Russian  emissaries,  and  it  spread  to  Servia  and 
Montenegro.  Ignatieflf  did  not  think  that  the  time  was 
ripe  and  interfered  ;  but  he  threatened  the  Sultan  with 
European  intervention  and  Abdul  Aziz  granted  the  in- 
surgents the  privileges  enjoyed  by  the  Christians  in 
Turkey. 

Austria  looked  with  apprehension  upon  the  increasing 
influence  of  Russia  in  Turkey,  and  suggested  drastic  re- 
forms in  a  note  addressed  to  the  powers  on  December  30, 
1875.  It  was  approved  and  presented  to  the  sultan  by 
the  five  great  European  powers.  Abdul  Aziz  quietly  ac- 
cepted it.  This  was  not  what  the  Russian  Slavophils  ex- 
pected, and  they  incited  the  Servians  to  revolt.  A  re- 
ligious insurrection  followed  which  was  put  down  by 
the  Turks  w^ith  such  cruelty  that  it  aroused  universal  in- 
dignation in  Europe,  especially  in  Russia.  In  Constan- 
tinople the  Turks  were  indignant  at  the  sultan's  evident 
fear  of  IgnatiefT.  The  situation  became  so  alarming 
that  Great  Britain  assembled  a  fleet  in  Besika  Bay.  The 
triple  alliance,  Russia,  Austria  and  Prussia,  demanded 
of  the  sultan  an  armistice  and  the  execution  of  reforms 
under  foreign  supervision.  The  situation  changed  by  a 
revolution  in  Turkey  on  May  29,  1876,  when  Abdul  Aziz 
was  assassinated  and  succeeded  by  his  nephew  Murad  V. 

Russia  felt  that  war  was  inevitable  and  approached 
Austria  with  proposals  to  take  joint  action.  The  reply 
was  that  Austria  could  not  permit  the  creation  of  a  Slav 
state  on  the  frontier  and  that,  if  any  changes  were  made 


22,2 


in  the  Balkans,  Austria  must  receive  compensation. 
This  was  athnitted  by  Russia.  A  number  of  Russian 
officers  took  service  in  Servia,  amon^  them  (ieneral  Cher- 
naiev,  who  had  g^ained  distinction  in  Central  Asia. 
Montenegro  declared  war  against  Turkey  on  July  2, 
1876. 

On  the  31st  of  August,  of  the  same  year.  Sultan  Murad 
V  was  deposed,  and  his  half-brother  became  sultan  as 
Abdul  Hamid  II.  Meanwhile  the  Turks  were  victorious, 
and  on  September,  17,  the  Servians  asked  for  an  armis- 
tice. 

The  reports  of  Turkish  atrocities  aroused  great  indig- 
nation in  Cireat  Britain;  its  government  was  forced  to 
join  the  other  great  powers  in  a  note  to  the  sultan  de- 
manding reforms.  Abdul  Hamid  made  vague  promises 
but  when  the  Servians,  trusting  to  intervention,  again 
took  up  arms,  they  were  badly  defeated  and  a  great  num- 
ber of  Russian  officers  were  killed.  The  czar  was  forced 
to  interfere.  On  October  31,  he  demanded  an  armistice 
of  six  weeks,  to  which  Abdul  Hamid  replied  that  he 
would  make  it  six  months.  This  was  declined  because 
it  would  keep  the  Servians  too  long  in  suspense,  and  the 
war  continued.  In  the  beginning  of  November  Cher- 
naiev  admitted  that  the  Slav  cause  was  lost  unless  foreign 
helj)  came. 

Alexander  was  really  concerned  in  seeking  a  peaceable 
solution,  but  his  high  officers  were  e(|ually  earnest  in  ])re- 
venting  it.  Ignatieff,  at  Constantinople,  was  es|)ecially 
active  with  every  means  at  his  disposal.  Alexander  sug- 
gested a  European  conference  but  before  it  assembled 
he  declared  publicly  at  Moscow  (Nov.  10),  that,  anxious 


233 


as  he  was  to  avoid  the  shedding  of  Russian  blood,  he 
would  act  alone  to  support  his  brethren  in  race  and 
religion  unless  the  conference  brought  relief. 

The  rei)resentatives  of  the  powers  met  at  Constanti- 
no])le  on  the  5th  of  December,  1876.  The  sultan,  a  man 
of  rare  ability  and  cunning,  knew  that  Turkey's  disin- 
tegration was  discussed  in  its  own  capital.  He  did  not 
object,  but  made  one  of  the  reform  party  his  Grand 
X'izier,  and  astonished  the  world  by  proclaiming  a  con- 
stitution on  December  25. 

The  conference  concluded  its  deliberations,  and  pre- 
sented its  conclusions  to  the  sultan  who  agreed  to  sub- 
mit them  to  the  National  Assembly,  which  was  to  meet 
in  March,  1877.  •  Abdul  Hamid  was  wise.  He  made  the 
first  lejrislature  Turkev  ever  had, — and  he  had  firmlv 
resolved  that  it  should  also  be  the  last, — responsible 
for  whatever  might  hai)pen.  The  session  was  brief, 
but  long  enough  to  refuse  the  conditions  imposed  by  the 
j)Owers. 

Alexander  demanded  that  the  sultan  make  peace  with 
Montenegro  which  was  declined.  On  the  24th  of  April 
the  czar  declared  war.  England  protested  against  Rus- 
sia's in(le|)endent  action,  but  250,000  men  crossed 
the  Turkish  frontier.  The  principal  incident  was  the 
siege  and  fall  of  Tlevna  (July  20 — Dec.  10,  1877),  under 
Osman  Pasha.  The  surrender  of  this  brave  Turk 
alarmed  England,  which,  however,  did  not  grant  Tur- 
key's appeal  for  intervention.  It  was  at  the  battle  of 
Senova,  Jan.  9.  1878,  when  he  captured  27,000  prisoners 
and  43  Krupp  guns,  that  Skobelef  won  fame.  On  Jan- 
uary  23,   Constantinople   was   at   the   czar's   mercy. 


\ 


234 

But  this  awoke  Encrland.  On  February  13,  the  British 
fleet  passed  throu^2:h  the  Dardanelles  without  obtaining 
the  suUan's  consent,  and  thereby  ruined  Russia's  schemes. 
In  vain  (hd  its  government  comi)lain  of  the  violation  of 
the  Treaty  of  Paris :  before  the  czar  could  make  good  his 
threat  that  he  would  occupy  Constantinople,— the  object 
of  the  Russian's  most  fervid  hope,— a  tleet  of  British 
ironclads  prevented  its  consummation. 

Peace  negotiations  were  opened  at  San  Stefano,  when 
Russia  imposed  exaggerated  demands  which  the  cunning 
sultan  hastened  to  grant,  convinced  that  the  other  powers 
w^ould  prevent  their  execution.  lie  was  right.  Great 
Britain.  Austria,  and  Turkev  entered  into  an  alliance. 
England  sent  for  Indian  troops  to  occupy  Malta,  and 
called  out  the  reserves.  The  war  had  cost  Russia  $r)00,- 
000,000  and  90,000  men,  and  she  was  not  in  a  condition 
to  fight  the  three  powers.  Thus,  for  the  second  time, 
Czargrad  slipped  out  of  Russia's  clutches,  and  each  time 
she  owed  the  disappointment  to  Oeat  Britain. 

The  Balkan  question  was  settled  at  the  Congress  at 
Berlin  which  opened  on  June  13.  1878,  and  finished  its 
sessions  a  month  later.  Turkey  ceded  to  Russia  a  part 
of  Bessarabia,  and  in  Asia,  Kars,  Ardahan,  and  P»atoum. 
This  ending  of  the  war,  so  different  from  what  was  ^ex- 
pected by  the  Slavophils,  caused  great  dissatisfaction  in 
Russia,  and  the  czar  dissolved  all  Slavophil  committees. 
This  gained  him  the  dislike  of  the  high  officers  and  of  the 

tchinovnik. 

The  absurd  and  dangerous  doctrine  of  nihilism,  that 
is,  the  destruction  of  everything  that  constitutes  society, 
penetrated  into  Russia  by  way  of  Germany.     At  first  it 


235 


was  nothing  but  a  theory,  fascinating  for  young  and  in- 
experienced people  such  as  students  of  the  universities 
who,  unless  properly  guided,  are  apt  to  adopt  any  idea 
that  appeals  to  the  generous  sentiments  of  youth.  In 
1864,  an  exile  named  Bakunin  escaped  from  Siberia,  and 
made  his  way  to  London  where  he  secured  employment 
on  the  Kolokol  or  "  Bell,"  a  revolutionary  paper  pub- 
lished in  Russia  which  was  smuggled  over  the  frontier 
and  scattered  broadcast  in  the  czar's  domains.  Under 
Bakunin's  influence  this  paper  became  hostile  to  society, 
and  preached  nihilism.  In  i8(x;,  a  Congress  of  Nihilists 
was  held  at  I'asel.  Switzerland;  I>akunin  proposed  to 
create  an  International  Committee  of  active  workers. 

Soon  umnistakablc  signs  of  trouble  appeared  in  Rus- 
sia, but  the  government  was  on  the  alert  and  took  strong 
means  of  sui)pression.  Nicholas  I,  the  man  with  the  iron 
will,  had  sent  an  average  number  of  9,000  persons  an- 
nually to  Siberia ;  this  number  under  Alexander  the 
Liberator  increased  to  from  16,000  to  20,000.  l)akunin 
urged  his  follow^ers  to  "  go  among  the  people,"  and  a 
host  of  young  persons,  male  and  female,  many  of  them 
belonging  to  the  wealthy  classes,  adopted  the  life  of  the 
moujik  in  the  villages.  But  the  Russian  peasant  pos- 
sesses a  degree  of  cunning  which  shows  his  dormant  in- 
telligence, and  suspected  the  motives  of  those  who  said 
they  wanted  to  benefit  him,  and  this,  added  to  his  real 
affection  for  the  czar,  rendered  the  attempt  of  the  nihil- 
ists a  failure.  The  Russian  peasant  dreads  a  change  in 
his  condition,  because  experience  has  taught  him  that  it 
will  end  to  his  disadvantage.  In  1876  there  were  still 
2,000,000  peasants  who  preferred  serfdom. 


236 


The  Turkish  war,  when  the  government  was  occupied 
elsewhere,  afforded  an  opportunity  which  was  not  neg- 
lected by  the  nihilists.    On  a  July  night  of  the  year  1877, 
fifteen  voung  men  met  in  the  forest  near  Litepsk,  and 
formed    a    conspiracy    against    all    existing    institutions. 
Two  papers,  The  Popular  Will  and  The  Black  Partition 
advised  assassination  as  the  means  to  gain  their  object. 
We  may  judge  of  conditions  in   Russia   from  knowing 
that  many  good  and  wealthy  people  made  contributions, 
well  aware  that  arrest  and  punishment  would  follow  if 
the  secret  police  should  hear  of  it.     In  October,   1877, 
253  nihilists   were  arrested,  and    \(yo  were  convicted  at 
the  trial.     In  February,  1878,  General  Trepof,  Governor 
of  St.  Petersburg  was  openly  accused  in  the  papers  of 
gross  cruelty  toward  a  prisoner,  and   Vera  Zazulich,  a 
young  woman,   sought  to  kill   him.     She   was  arrested, 
tried,— and  acquitted,  much  to  the  disgust  of  the  audior- 
ities  who  made  every  effort  to  re-arrest  her.     Then  be- 
gan a  reign  of  terror.     Officials  were  condemned  to  death 
by   an   "  Executive   Committee,"   composed  of   members 
whose  names  were  unknown.     The  police  did  not  know 
whom  to  suspect,  and  therefore  suspected  everybody,  and 
no    one    was    safe.     Often    the    condemned    officer    was 
warned  of  his  doom  by  letter  or  paper,  but  the  messenger 
could  not  be  found.     In  April,  the  president  of  the  Kief 
University  was  dangerously  wounded,  and  a  police  offi- 
cer  was   stabbed    in    public.     In    August,    General    Me- 
zensof,  Chief  of  the  dreaded  Secret   Police,  was  killed, 
and  when  the  government  abolished  trial  by  jury  in  favor 
of  a  military  court,  it  seemed  as  if  the  public  took  the 
part  of  the  terrorists.     These  men  grew  bolder.     On  the 


237 


22(1  of  February,  1878,  Prince  Krapotkine,  the  Governor 
of  Kharkof,  was  shot,  and  his  death  sentence  was  found 
posted  in  many  cities.  On  the  following  7th  of  March, 
Colonel  Knoop  of  die  Odessa  police,  was  killed,  and  as  a 
climax,  on  the  14th  of  April  a  school-teacher  named 
Solovief  fired  a  pistol  at  the  czar.  Xot  satisfied  with 
assassination,  the  terrorists  resorted  to  incendiarism  at 
Moscow,  Xishni  Novgorod,  and  other  cities,  and  there 
were  riots  at  Rostof.  In  April,  1878,  the  government 
proclaimed  martial  law,  and  the  most  renowned  generals, 
Melikof,  Gcurko,  Todleben,  and  others  were  appointed 
governors  w^ith  unlimited  authority.  At  St.  Petersburg 
the  dvorniks  or  house  janitors  were  directed  to  spy  upon 
the  residents  and  to  report  their  movements  to  the  secret 
police.  Executions,  imprisonment,  and  exile  multiplied 
until  it  seemed  as  if  the  government  wished  to  terrify 
the  terrorists. 

Still    the    situation    went    from    bad    to    worse.      On 
December    i,    1879,   as   the   imperial   train   was   entering 
Moscow,  it  was  wrecked  by  a  mine.     Alexander  escaped 
because  he  had  traveled  in  an  earlier  section.    Three  days 
later  the  "  Executive  Committee  "  issued  a  proclamation 
excusing  the  attempt  and  announcing  that  the  czar  had 
been  condemned  to  death.     On   February    17,    1880,   an 
explosion  of  dynamite  in  the  guard  room  of  the  Winter 
Palace,  just  beneath  the  imperial  dining-room,  killed  and 
maimed  a  large  number  of  soldiers,  but  the  imperial  fam- 
ily escaped  by  a  hair's  breadth,  as  the  czar  had  not  en- 
tered the  room.     On  the  24th  of  the  same  month  Louis 
Melikof  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  city  of  St.  Peters- 
burg, and  eight  days  later  there  was  an  attempt  upon  his 


238 


life.  There  was  a  panic  in  tlie  capital,  when  a  nihilist 
proclamation  announced  that  these  attempts  would  cease, 
provided  the  czar  would  renounce  his  autocracy  and 
**  leave  the  task  of  establishing  social  reforms  to  an  as- 
sembly representing^  the  entire  Russian  people." 

Whatever  may  have  been  his  motive,  Melikof  urged 
the  czar  to  try  what  conciliation  would  effect.  Upon 
his  advice,  a  large  number  of  exiles  in  Siberia  were  par- 
doned, and  persons  imprisoned  for  political  offenses  were 
released.  About  2,000  students  expelled  from  the  uni- 
versities were  readmitted,  and  in  several  cases  the  death 
sentence  pronounced  against  nihilists  was  commuted. 
Only  two  men  out  of  the  sixteen  convicted  of  the  attempt 
to  blow  up  the  Winter  Palace,  were  executed.  The  ef- 
fect of  this  new  policy  was  so  satisfactory,  that  on  the 
1 8th  of  August.  1880,  the  czar  revoked  the  ukase  of 
February  24,  and  Melikof  was  appointed  as  Minister  of 
the  Interior.  He  advised  the  czar  to  grant  a  constitu- 
tion, and  in  February  1881,  placed  before  Alexander  a 
plan  t(^  effect  this  important  change  gradually.  It  was 
discussed  in  the  Council  of  State.  The  majority  ap- 
proved, but  a  bitter  opi)osition  was  manifested  by  the 
other  members.  The  czar  himself  was  in  favor  of  it. 
but  the  persons  with  whom  he  came  into  daily  contact 
caused  him  to  hesitate.  He  told  Melikof  that  he  would 
give  his  final  decision  on  March  12. 

On  that  day  he  had  not  made  up  his  nund,  but  on  the 
13th,  he  ordered  that  Melikof 's  scheme  should  become  a 
law,  and  that  it  be  published  in  the  Official  (iazette. 
That  afternoon,  as  he  was  returning  from  his  usual  drive, 
and  his  carriage  was  passing  between  the  Catherine  Canal 


239 


and  Michael's  Garden,  a  bomb  was  thrown  under  his  car- 
riage and  exploded,  killing  or  wounding  a  number  of  the 
guard,  but  Alexander  was  unhurt.  He  was  hurrying  to 
assist  the  wounded,  when  another  bomb  exploded  near 
him  and  he  was  dreadfully  mangled.  He  regained  con- 
sciousness for  a  moment  while  his  attendants  were  bear- 
ing him  to  the  i)alace,  but  died  at  3.30  p.  m.,  without 
having  spoken  a  word. 

A  man  named  Rissakof,  said  to  be  a  nihilist,  w^as  ar- 
rested for  throwing  the  Ix^mb ;  but  there  were  ugly  ru- 
mors that  the  assassination  was  committed  under  the 
direction  of  parties  interested  in  maintaining  an  auto- 
cratic government  at  all  risks.  Owing  to  the  secret  pro- 
ceedings in  Russian  courts,  the  murder  of  Alexander  the 
Liberator  still  remains  a  mystery. 


(240) 


Alexander  III 


XXVI— ALEXANDER  III,  THE  PEASANTS' 

ERIEND. 

THE  atrocious  death  of  The  Liberator  c^ave  the  throne 
to  his  son.  who  succeeded  as  Alexander  III.  The 
new  czar  was  thirty-six  years  old.  Nicholas,  the  eldest 
son  of  Alexander  II,  had  died  of  consumption  in  1865, 
and,  since  he  had  been  the  heir,  his  younger  brother  had 
not  received  any  special  training^.  His  principal  tutor 
had  been  PobiedonostzefF,  a  man  who  believed  In  autoc- 
racy. He  had  imbued  his  pupil  with  a  deeply  religious 
feeling,  and  iir.i)arted  to  him  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
Russia's  history.  Alexander  III  was  of  powerful  build 
and  possessed  unusual  strength.  He  was  loyal  to  his 
word,  and  tenacious  in  his  likes  and  dislikes.  Married 
to  Princess  Dagmar  of  Denmark,  he  was  a  model  hus- 
band and  father.  His  education  made  him  a  firm  believer 
in  autocracy. 

The  sudden  and  tragic  death  of  his  father  moved  him 
so  deeply  that  he  gave  orders  that  the  last  wishes  of  the 
late  czar  should  be  respected.  "  Change  nothing  in  my 
father's  orders  ;  "  he  said  to  Melikof ;  '*  they  are  his  last 
will  and  testament.  He  issued  two  ])roclamations ;  in 
the  first  he  announced  that  he  would  strengthen  the  bond 
with  Poland  and  Einland,  and  thus  gained  the  support  of 
the  Slavophils ;  and  in  the  second,  he  reminded  the  peas- 

241 


»i 


(240) 


Alexander  III 


xx\  I— .\Li':xAXi)i^:k  in.  riii-:  im-lasaxts' 

iRii':xi). 


Tl  1 1*',  alrnriiuis  (kalli  of  Vhv  1  jhcrator  _q^avc  the  throne 
t(>  his  son,  who  succeeded  as  Alexander  III.  The 
new  czar  was  thirt\-six  years  old.  Xicliolas,  the  eldest 
son  of  Alexander  II.  had  died  of  consumption  in  i<*^^)5, 
and.  since  he  had  heen  the  heir,  his  youn,<^er  hrother  had 
not  received  any  special  traininjL;'.  llis  ])rincipal  tutor 
had  1)een  PohiedonostzefF.  a  man  who  helievecl  in  autoc- 
racy, lie  had  imhued  his  pu])il  with  a  deeply  religious 
feelin:L^^  and  imparted  t<»  him  a  thorough  knowledi^e  of 
Russia's  historx .  Alexander  III  was  of  jxiwerful  huild 
and  ])ossessed  unusual  strength.  lie  was  loyal  to  his 
word,  and  tenaciou>  in  his  likes  and  dislikes.  Married 
to  iVincess  I  )airmar  of  Denmark,  he  was  a  model  hus- 
band  and  father.  His  education  made  him  a  firm  believer 
in  autoeracN. 

The  sudden  and  tragic  death  of  his  father  moved  him 
S(»  deeply  that  he  i^ave  orders  that  the  last  wishes  of  the 
lale  czar  should  be  resprcled.  "  ( "hani^e  nothinii*  in  my 
father's  orders;"  he  said  to  Melikof;  "  they  are  his  last 
will  and  testament.  lie  issued  two  ])roclamations ;  in 
the  tirst  he  announced  that  he  would  streui^then  the  bond 
with  Poland  and  Mnland.  and  thus  gained  the  support  of 
the  Slavoi)hils  ;  and  in  the  second,  he  reminded  the  pcas- 

241 


!!l 


242 

ants  of  the  freedom  given  to  them  by  his  father,  and  or- 
dered them  to  swear  allegiance  to  himself  and  his  heir. 
Six  men  and  a  woman  implicated  in  the  murder  of  the 
late  czar  were  arrested,  tried,  condemned  to  death,  and, 
with  the  exception  of  the  woman,  they  were  executed  on 
April  15.  The  czar  appointed  his  former  tutor  as  Proc- 
urator of  the  Holy  Synod.  Pobiedonostzeff  persuaded 
his  pupil  that  this  was  not  the  time  to  make  concessions. 
On  the  nth  of  May,  1881,  Alexander  issued  a  proclama- 
tion in  which  he  declared  his  intention  to  maintain  the 
absolute  power.  Melikof  resigned  as  Minister  of  the 
Interior  and  was  replaced  by  Ignatieff,  the  former  Rus- 
sian Minister  at  Constantinople. 

Shortly  after  his  succession  to  the  throne,  Alexander 
made  a  journey  to  Moscow,  and  was  everywhere  re- 
ceived wath  unmistakable  tokens  of  loyalty  and  affection. 
This  confirmed  his  opinion  that  the  great  bulk  of  the 
population  was  satisfied  with  the  form  of  government, 
and  strengthened  his  determination  to  defend  it. 

In  1881,  an  anti-semitic  movement  was  felt  in  Ger- 
many ;  that  is,  an  outburst  of  hatred  for  the  Jews  broke 
out,  which  spread  to  Russia.  It  is  not  generally  known 
that  of  all  the  Jews  in  the  world,  four  fifths  live  in  Rus- 
sia in  the  southwest,  in  an  area  of  356,681  square  miles, 
This  is  sometimes  mentioned  as  the  Jewish  territory. 
Few  of  these  people  engage  in  agriculture;  they  are 
sometimes  mechanics,  but  more  often  pedlers,  store- 
keepers, bankers  and  moneylenders.  The  principal  ob- 
jection to  them  was  that  they  succeed  where  others  fail. 
In  May,  1881,  there  were  anti-Jewish  riots  at  Kief  and 
other  places.     Pobiedonostzeff's  motto  was,  '*  One  Rus- 


^43 

sia.  One  Religion,  One  Czar;"  prompted  by  him,  Alex- 
ander did  not  take  any  energetic  measures  to  suppress 
the  di.sorder,  for  he,  too,  disliked  to  see  in  Russia  a  peo- 
ple differing  in  religion,  language,  and  outward  appear- 
ance. Ignatieff  began  a  system  of  persecution  by  remov- 
ing the  Jews  who  had  profited  by  the  late  czar's  permis- 
sion to  settle  anywhere,  and  when  the  act  which  recalled 
the  Middle  Ages  was  hotly  condemned  by  the  foreign 
press,  even  the  Slavophils  said  that  Ignatieff  had  gone 
too  far.  The  persecution  died  out  until  1884,  when  the 
Jews  were  deprived  of  their  civil  rights,  and  an  attempt 
was  made  to  compel  them  to  enter  the  Greek  Church, 
liut  the  Jew  is  steadfast  under  persecution,  and  the  only 
result  was  that  some  of  them  heartily  joined  the  nihilists. 

The  public  condemnation  which  followed  these  acts, 
induced  Ignatieff  to  advise  the  czar  to  adopt  Melikof's 
scheme  of  a  constitution.  Alexander  did  not  understand 
this  change  of  views  and  when  de  Giers  was  appointed 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  Ignatieff  resigned.  He  was 
succeeded  bv  D.  Tolstoi. 

Misunderstandings  and  the  clashing  of  interests  were 
dissolving  the  triple  alliance  of  Russia,  Austria,  and  Ger- 
many. This  was  apparent  in  the  Balkan  States  which 
had  been  formed  after  the  last  Russo-Turkish  war. 
Charles  I,  King  of  Roumania,  was  a  (lerman  prince  who 
mistrusted  Russia's  schemes.  In  March,  1882,  Prince 
Milan  Obrenovitch  of  Servia  assumed  the  title  of  king, 
and  the  czar  offered  no  objection.  The  ruler  of  Bul- 
garia was  Alexander  of  Battenberg  who  was  a  relative 
of  the  czar  and  had  served  in  the  Russian  army,  which 
may  have  been  the  reason  of  his  appointment.     The  Rus- 


n 


244 

sian  Minister  at  his  court  was  evidently  of  the  opinion 
that  his  word,  as  representative  of  the  czar,  was  law,  and 
when  he  found  out  that  his  orders  were  set  at  nauj^ht. 
he  withdrew  from  his  post,  whereni)on  the  Russian  offi- 
cers servinj^  in  ihe  lUdi^^arian  aiiii\,  were  dismissed. 
This  ^ave  grave  offense  at  St.  IVtershurg,  hut  the  affair 
was  arranged,  and  the  Russian  Minister  returned.  In 
Septemher,  1885,  there  was  a  revolution  in  Sofia,  the  ca- 
pital of  Eastern  Roumelia,  when  the  crown  was  offered 
to  Alexander  of  l>attenherg.  who  accepted.  He  hastened 
to  inform  the  czar,  who  was  too  angry  to  i)ay  any  atten- 
tion to  letters  or  telegrams. 

Bulgaria  and  Eastern  Roumelia.  although  united  un- 
der one  prince,  sent  deputations  to  St.  Petersburg  to  ap- 
pease the  czar,  hut  were  informed  that  their  future  would 
be  decided  by  the  great  powers.  Soon  after  Servia  de- 
clared war  against  I'ulgaria ;  after  a  few  unimportant 
skirmishes,  they  were  driven  back  by  Prince  Alexander, 
who  would  have  captured  the  capital  P.elgrad,  if  he  had 
not  been  stopped  by  Austria's  intervention.  Alexander, 
after  another  fruitless  attempt  to  mollify  the  czar,  ap- 
plied to  the  sultan,  who  appointed  him  as  Governor-gen- 
eral over  Eastern  Roumelia  for  five  years.  The  czar  pro- 
tested and  invited  the  powers  to  a  conference  which  was 
held  at  Constantinoi)le  on  April  5,  1886.  To  the  infinite 
disgust  of  the  czar,  the  dispute  was  decided  in  favor  of 
Prince  Alexander. 

Russia,  however,  had  a  pro-Russian  party  in  Bulgaria. 
On  August  21,  1886,  Prince  Alexander  was  kidnaped 
and  carried  across  the  Danube,  after  being  compelled  to 
abdicate.     At  Lemberg,  In  Austrian  territory  he  was  set 


245 

free.  The  Bulgarians  rallied  under  the  President  of  the 
National  Assembly  and  forced  the  pro-Russians  to  flee, 
after  which  Prince  Alexander  returned  on  the  3d  of  Sej)- 
tember.  Once  more  he  made  an  attempt  to  pacify  the 
czar,  but  when  his  telegram  remained  unanswered,  he 
abdicated  three  days  later,  rather  than  involve  the 
country  in  a  war  with  Russia.  He  left  on  the  same  day, 
to  the  sorrow  of  the  people. 

The  czar  was  angry.  He  knew  that  Austria  would 
not  have  dared  oppose  him  unless  assured  of  the  support 
of  Germany.  The  feeling  in  Russia  grew  more  bitter 
when  the  election  in  Bulgaria  showed  a  total  defeat  of 
the  pro-Russian  i)arty,  and  the  crown  was  offered  to 
Prince  Waldemar  of  Denmark,  who  declined  at  the  In- 
stance of  the  czar.  The  lUilgarians  then  made  an  offer 
to  Prince  l^>rdinand  of  Saxe-Coburg,  who  accepted,  and 
In  August  made  his  formal  entry  in  Tirnova.  Alexander 
once  more  protested  to  the  powers,  but  it  passed  un- 
heeded and  he  urged  the  sultan  to  expel  Ferdinand. 
Abdul  Hamid  declined  with  thanks,  preferring  to  have 
as  neighbor  a  small  independent  country  to  Russia. 
Alexander  then  demanded  payment  of  the  war  indemnity 
due  since  the  Treaty  of  San  Stefano,  but  could  obtain 
nothing  except  a  profusion  of  excuses  and  apologies. 
Soon  after  the  sultan  had  trouble  in  Armenia,  which 
was  Russia's  latest  resort  to  arouse  public  opinion  against 

the  Turk. 

This  is  the  age  of  colossal  enterprises  and  combina- 
tions in  every  direction,  in  politics  as  well  as  in  other 
branches  of  human  activity.  In  Russia  Slavophilism, 
gave  way  to  Panslavism,  that  is,  the  scheme  to  unite  all 


!« 


246 

Slav  nations.  Germany  was  quick  to  respond  with  Pan 
Germanism,  that  is,  to  bring  all  German-speaking  nations 
under  one  scepter.  The  czar,  obeying  this  impulse, 
made  every  effort  to  convert  the  Baltic  provinces, — which 
Germany  called  the  German  Provinces, — into  Slavs  by 
making  the  Russian  language  the  only  language  that  was 
taught  in  the  schools ;  and  Germany  retaliated  in  the 
Polish  provinces.  Under  these  circumstances  friendship 
ceased.  Russia  established  a  protective  tariff,  which  was 
a  rude  blow  to  Germany's  commerce ;  and  that  country 
replied  by  refusing  to  loan  Russia  any  more  money. 
The  czar's  government  applied  to  l^>ance  which  re- 
sponded with  unexpected  generosity.  From  that  time 
Russia's  internal  improvements  have  been  made  with 
French  capital. 

Prudent  as  he  was,  Alexander  allowed  his  anger  and 
dislike  to  master  him,  when  Prince  Alexander  of  Batten- 
berg  was  accepted  as  suitor  to  a  daughter  of  Queen  \'ic- 
toria.  Troops  were  hurried  from  the  Caucasus  into  Po- 
land, but  Germany  averted  war  by  having  the  match 
broken  off.  When  the  present  German  emperor, 
William  II,  succeeded  to  the  throne,  he  attempted  to 
make  friends  with  the  czar  by  dismissing  Prince  l>is- 
marck,  in  1890,  but  Alexander  could  neither  forgive  nor 
forget.  It  was  chiefly  owing  to  this  that  Russia  and 
France  drew  closer  together  until  it  ended  in  an  alliance. 

Strong,  self-willed,  and  masterful,  Alexander  did  love 
his  people  in  his  own  way.  In  January,  1884,  he  ordered 
the  poll-tax  to  be  abolished,  and  thereby  relieved  the 
peasants  of  a  heavy  burden  ;  he  also  compelled  the  land- 
owners to  sell  to  their  former  serfs  the  land  cultivated 


247 

by  them.  Since  the  price  was  payable  in  installments  and 
the  owners  needed  the  money,  the  government  assumed 
the  position  of  creditor,  but  Alexander  reduced  the  total 
indebtedness  by  12,000.000  rubles,  and  granted  5,000,000 
rubles  for  the  relief  of  overburdened  villages.  He  cal- 
culated that  the  land  would  be  paid  for  in  1930,  when 
the  title  will  be  vested  in  the  mir, — unless  one  of  his  suc- 
cessors should  please  to  appropriate  the  past  payments 
for  other  purposes. 

In  the  black  earth  belt  the  allotments  had  been  ac- 
cording to  the  needs  of  the  population,  but  the  increase 
among  the  i)eoi)le  rendered  them  too  small  and  several 
severe  fauiines  followed.  The  government  tried  to  in- 
duce the  surplus  population  to  emigrate  to  Siberia,  but 
the  Russian  peasant  lacks  education  and  has  been  held  in 
tutelage  so  long  that  he  is  not  fit  for  the  life  of  a  pioneer 
settler.  Transportation  facilities  increased  by  the  aid  of 
French  capital,  and  added  to  the  prosperity  of  merchants 
and  speculators,  but  did  not  help  the  moujik  who  did  not 
know  how  to  profit  by  them. 

Alexander,  as  autocrat  of  all  the  Russias,  did  not  suf- 
fer any  authority  but  his  own.  The  zemstvos,  volosts, 
and  mirs,  were  all  placed  under  officials  appointed  by 
him.  Every  shadow  of  self-government  was  destroyed. 
This  demanded  a  reorganization  of  the  army,  which  was 
increased  by  900.000  men.  The  reserves  were  called  out 
once  a  year,  and  drilled  as  in  actual  war.  Strategic  rail- 
ways were  built  for  the  speedy  transportation  of  troops. 
Coast  defenses  were  constructed  and  the  navy  was  in- 
creased. In  1884,  P>atoum  was  closed  as  a  port  and  con- 
verted into  a  naval  base,  and  when  England  protested, 


248 


claiminj^  that  this  was  in  violation  of  the  Treaty  of  Ber- 
lin,— as  it  was, — Russia,  referring  to  the  changes  in  the 
Balkan,  inquired  if  the  duty  of  observing  the  treaties 
was  reserved  exclusively  for  Russia. 

Alexander's  reign  was  especially  discouraging  for  the 
Poles  who  still  hoped  for  the  revival  of  their  country. 
Poles  were  made  into  Russians;  but  Panslavism  de- 
manded that  the  German  should  be  banished,  h^  1887, 
Alexander  ordered  that,  when  a  foreign  landowner  in 
Poland  died,  his  estate  must  be  sold  unless  his  heirs  had 
been  residents  of  Poland  before  this  order  was  published. 
Germany,  suffering  from  Pan-Germanism,  collected  sev- 
eral thousand  Russian  Poles  who  had  settled  in  (Germany, 
and  put  them  across  the  frontier.  Russia  replied  by  mak- 
ing a  law  in  the  Baltic  provinces  that  nothing  but  Rus- 
sian could  be  taught  in  any  school,  and  that  no  more 
Lutheran  churches  could  be  built  without  the  permis- 
sion of  the  Holy  Synod. 

Then  came  Finland's  turn.  In  1890,  Russian  money, 
Russian  stamps,  and  worse  than  that,  Russian  taxes  were 
introduced.  There  were  loud  protests,  which  received 
courteous  answers,  but  the  process  continued.  In  i8(ji. 
the  Finnish  Committee  at  St.  Petersburg,  which  had  di- 
rected the  affairs  of  Finland,  was  abolished,  and  Russian 
censorship  abolished  the  free  press.  The  Russian  lan- 
guage was  made  obligatory,  and  the  Finns  who  could 
afford  it  emigrated  to  the  United  States  and  settled  in 
the  northwest. 

In  1890.  Alexander  ordered  the  construction  of  the 
trans-Siberian  railway,  of  which  more  will  be  said  in 
the  chapter  on  Asiatic  Russia. 


249 


All  these  years  Alexander  had  battled   with   nihilism 
and  revolution.     His  policy  neither  gave  nor  asked  for 
quarter.     In  May,  1888,  an  army  officer  named  Timovief 
made  an  attempt  uix.n  the  czar^s  life.     On  October  29th 
of  the  same  year,  as  he  was  traveling  in  southern  Russia 
an   accident  occurred   in   which  twenty -one   were  killed 
and  many  injured;  it  was  ascribed  to  nihilists,  but  may 
have  been  caused  by-  defects.     Be  that  as  it  may,  Alex- 
ander never  recovered  from  the  shock.     In  March,  1890, 
another  plot  against  his  life  was  discovered.     In  Novem- 
ber, 1891,  the  secret  police  came  on  the  scent  of  a  con- 
spiracy at  Moscow,  and  in  April,   1894.  they  learned  of 
one  at  St.  Petersburg.     In  constant  fear  of  assassination, 
Alexander  resided  at  Gatschina,  twenty-five  miles  south 
of  St.  Petersburg,  as  in  an  armed  fortress.     The  never- 
ceasing  tension  wore  out  the  strong  man.     He  caught 
coki  and  suffering  from  inflammation  of  the  kidneys  he 
went  south,  but  experienced  no  relief.     He  died  on  the 
1st  of  November,  1894. 

In  his  private  life  he  was  essentially  a  good  man ;  as 
czar,  he  acted  according  to  his  convictions.  He  gave 
much  thought  to  the  welfare  of  the  peasants  and  as  such 
deserved  the  surname  of  The  Peasants'  Friend. 


i 


(250) 


Nicholas  II 


XX\'I I— RUSSIA  UXDRR  THE  PRESEXT  CZAR. 

NICHOLAS  n. 

NEGLPXT  nothing  that  can   make  my  son  truly  a 
man !  "     This  was  the  instruction  given  by  Alex- 
ander to  the  tutors  of  his  son.     Consequently,  Nicholas 
in  his  youth  was  allowed  to  indulge  in  manly  exercises 
and  sports,  while  special  tutors  taught  him  mathematics, 
natural  philosoi)hy,  history,  political  economy,  English, 
French,  and  German,  besides  his  native  language.     Des- 
tined for  the  throne,  he  began  his  military  career  at  the 
age  of  thirteen  as  hetman  of  the  Cossacks,  and  passed 
successively  through  the  different  grades.     Tn   1889,  at 
the  age  of  twenty-one,  he  was  appointed  president  of  a 
committee  to  prepare  plans  for  the  trans-Siberian  rail- 
way, and  the  following  year  he  made  a  tour  in  the  Far 
East,  visiting  China  and  Japan.    In  the  last-named  coun- 
try he  was  attacked  and  wounded  by  a  police  officer  who 
had  been  brooding  over  the  wrongs  which  his  country 
h.id  suffered  at  the  hands  of  Russia.    Nicholas  recovered 
and   proceeded   to   Vladivostok,   where  he   initiated   the 
building  of  the  great  continental  line.     He  returned  to 
St.  Petersburg  bv  way  of  Siberia  and  Moscow,  and  was 
the  first  czar  who  had  ever  visited  his  Asiatic  empire. 
Born  on  May   18,  1868,  he  was  twenty-six  years  old 

251 


I 

I 


( 


«^  ^Jr 


V- 


hi 


^'^ 


(-50) 


Nicholas  II 


xx\ii-RrssiA  r\Di':K  rnr.  presext  czar. 

XKllOLAS  II. 

^T  FXiLECT   nolhini,^  that   can    make   niy   son   truly   a 
^     man!"     This   was  the  instruction  .t^ivcn  l)y   Alex- 
ander to  the  tutors  of  liis  son.     C'onse(|uently,   Nicholas 
in  his  vouth  was  allowed  t«>  indul-e  in  manly  exercises 
and  si)orts,  while  .si)ecial  tutors  tau.^ht  him  mathematics, 
natural   i)hilosoi)hy.  historx,   i)olitical   economy,   Eni^lish, 
r>encli,  and  ( ierman,  hesides  his  native  lani^uai^e.     Des- 
tined for  the  throne,  he  he.i^^an  his  military  career  at  the 
a^c  of  thirteen  as  hetman  of  the  Cossacks,  and  passed 
successivelv   throu.<;h   the   ditYerent   .i^rades.      In    i8«^<),   at 
the  a.i^e  of  twenty-one,  he  was  ai)i)ointed  i)resident  (^f  a 
committee  to  ])rei)are  plans   for  the  trans-Siheriau   rail- 
way, and  the  f(»llowin.<:  year  he  made  a  tour  in  the  h\ar 
East,  visitiu--  China  and  Japan.     In  the  last-named  coun- 
try he  was  attacked  and  wounded  by  a  police  officer  who 
had   hein   hroodin.i:  nver  the   wroni^^s  which   his  country 
h  id  suffered  at  the  hands  of  Russia.     Nicholas  recovered 
and    proceeded    to    \ladiv(,st()k.    where   he    initiated    the 
huildini^  of  the   i^reat   continental   line,      lie   returned  to 
St     IVtrrshuri,^  hy  way  of  Siberia  an.l  M«»cow,  and  was 
the  lir.st  czar  who  had  ever  visited  his  Asiatic  emi)ire. 
Born  on   May    iS,    iSrSS,  he  was  twenty-six  years  old 

-5' 


^5^ 


when  he  was  called  to  the  throne.  He  announced  that 
he  would  *'  promote  the  progress  and  peaceful  glory  of 
our  beloved  Russia,  and  the  happiness  of  all  our  faithful 
subjects."  On  the  26th  of  November,  1894,  the  czar  mar- 
ried Princess  Alice  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  the  granddaugh- 
ter of  Queen  \  ictoria,  who,  on  entering  the  Greek 
Church,  received  the  name  of  Alexandra  Feodorofna. 
The  czar  retained  his  father's  ministers,  except  that 
Prince  Khilkof,  who  had  learned  practical  railroading  in 
the  United  States,  was  appointed  Minister  of  Public 
Works.  Pobiedonostzeff  continued  as  Procurator  of  the 
Holy  Synod. 

Nicholas  showed  greater  leniency  toward  Poland  and 
Finland  than  his  father  had  done.  He  revoked  several 
of  his  father's  ukases  and  seemed  to  be  willing  to  treat 
them  fairly.  T^inland's  forests  are  a  source  of  great 
prosperity  and  the  Russian  officials  have  long  been  anx- 
ious to  secure  a  share.  \Mien  the  Secretary  of  State  for 
Finland  resigned,  (k^ieral  Kuropatkin  became  Minister 
of  War,  and  he  wished  to  introduce  Russia's  military 
system,  (ieneral  liobrikof,  a  brusque  and  haughty  man, 
was  appointed  Governor-general  with  instructions  to  pro- 
ceed with  the  conversion  of  the  Finns  into  Slavs.  He 
convoked  an  extraordinary  session  of  the  Diet,  January 
24,  1899,  and  submitted  Kuropatkin's  scheme,  with  a 
strong  hint  that  it  must  p  iss.  The  Diet  ignored  the  hint 
and  rejected  the  scheme,  wliereui)on  liobrikof  ignored 
the  Diet  and  published  it  as  a  law  to  go  into  effect  in  1903. 
An  imperial  ukase  of  h\'bruary  15,  1899,  reorganized 
the  Diet  according  to  a  plan  drawn  up  by  Pobiedonost- 
zeff.    Dobrikof  increased  the  rigor  of  the  press  censor- 


253 


ship,  but  the  Finns  remained  within  the  law.  A  petition 
was  circulated  which  in  ten  days  secured  500,000  signa- 
tures, and  a  delegation  was  sent  to  St.  Petersburg  to 
present  it.    The  delegation  was  not  admitted. 

In  January,    1895,   the  czar  received  a  deputation  of 
all  classes  of  his  subjects  who  hinted  that  the  zemstvos 
might  be  used  as  the  germ  of  a  constitutional  government. 
He  replied  that  he  believed  in  autocracy  and  that  he  in- 
tended to  maintain  it  as  his  predecessors  had  done.     On 
the  26th  of  May,  1896,  he  was  crowned  at  Moscow  with 
more  than  usual  splendor,  and  in  the  same  year  he  and 
the  czarina  made  a  tour  through  Europe.     After  visiting 
the  German  Emperor  and  Queen  X'ictoria,  they  went  to 
Paris  where  the  czar,  after  reviewing   100,000  soldiers 
declared  that  the  Empire  and  the  Republic  were  united 
in   indissoluble   friendship.     The   visit   was   returned  by 
the  President  of  the  I'rench  Republic.  M.  Faure,  in  Au- 
gust, 1897.     On  this  occasion  the  world  received  notice 
that  an  alliance  existed  between  the  two  powers,  and  diat, 
if  one  of  them  was  attacked  by  more  than  one  power,  the 
other   would   assist   with   the   whole  of   its  military   and 
naval  strength,  and  peace  could  be  concluded  only  in  con- 
cert between  the  allies. 

Two  great  reforms  are  noticeable  under  the  present 
reign.  The  sale  of  spirits  has  greatly  decreased  since 
the  government  took  the  monopoly  of  the  manufacture 
and  sale  of  liquor.  The  Trench  loans  made  the  establish- 
ment of  the  gold  standard  possible  and  speculation  in 
Russian  paper  money  ceased. 

The  completion  of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway  aroused 
great  expectation  for  the  future  of  Russia's  commerce. 


254 

The  war  with  Japan  has  prevented  the  possihiHty  of  es- 
timating- the  effect  it  will  have  upon  oceanic  trade.  But 
Russia's  manufactures  have  had  a  wonderful  increase ; 
its  effect  is  shown  in  the  population  of  the  cities.  In 
1870,  Russia  contained  only  six  cities  with  a  population 
of  over  100,000;  their  number  was  doubled  in  1897. 
Warsaw,  the  old  capital  of  Poland,  had  243,000  inhabit- 
ants in  1865;  in  1897,  ^^^^T  ^^'^^^  increased  to  615,000. 
Lotz,  also  in  Poland,  rose  from  12,000  to  315,000.  This 
cannot  fail  to  exert  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  future 
of  the  empire ;  first,  on  account  of  the  creation  of  a  mid- 
dle class  which,  even  at  this  early  day,  numbers  nine  per 
cent  of  the  population  ;  and  next,  because  the  mechanics 
and  factory  hands  are  recruited  from  among  the  peasants, 
who  thus  are  brought  into  daily  contact  with  more  intel- 
ligent people,  and  acquire  new  ideas  and  new  necessities. 
The  official  class  is  bitterly  opposed  to  this  new  dei)arture, 
because  it  foreshadows  the  day  when  the  drag  upon  Rus- 
sia will  be  cast  off. 

Nicholas  seems  to  have  reversed  his  father's  policy  in 
the  Balkan  States.  He  also  acted  in  concert  with  pAirope 
in  1896,  when  trouble  arose  between  Turkey  and  (ireece. 
It  bec:an  in  Crete,  where  Turk  and  Christian  could  not 
agree.  Stories  of  massacres  infuriated  the  Greeks  and 
the  king  had  to  choose  between  a  revolution  and  a  dec- 
laration of  war.  In  April,  1897,  an  army  of  80.000  men 
under  Prince  George  crossed  into  Thessaly,  but  was 
driven  back  by  a  Turkish  army  of  150.000  men.  Prince 
Cieorge  had  invaded  Crete  in  February,  but  the  powers 
compelled  him  to  evacuate  the  island.  The  czar  inter- 
ceded with  the  sultan,  and  the  absurd  war  was  ended. 


^55 


The  Slavophils,  after  their  failure  in  the  Balkan  prov- 
inces had  excited  the  Armenians  in  the  provinces  near 
the  Russian  Caucasus.  'Hiey  attacked  the  Kurds,  a  no- 
madic tribe  of  Mussulmans,  when  the  Turks  took  the 
side  of  their  co-religionists  and  treated  the  Armenians 
with  no  soft  hand.  The  Panslavists  demanded  auton- 
omy for  Armenia,  but  this  did  not  suit  Prince  Lobanof, 
who  had  succeeded  de  Giers  as  Minister  of  Foreign  Af- 
fairs, because  he  feared  trouble  in  the  Caucasus.  In 
1895,  Russia,  France,  and  Fngland,  presented  a  note  to 
the  sultan,  suggesting-  die  appointment  of  a  high  com- 
missioner, the  abolition  of  torture,  and  reforms  in  taxa- 
tion. Turkey  agreed,  but  Shakir  Pasha,  the  high  com- 
missioner, failed  to  restore  order  and  the  disorder  threat- 
ened to  become  a  revolt,  h^ven  in  Constantinople  a  con- 
dition of  anarchy  prevailed. 

The  atrocities  committed  by  the  Turks  aroused  indig- 
nation everywhere,  when  the  Armenians  seized  the  Otto- 
man P>ank,  but  the  conspirators  were  forced  to  flee  from 
the  building  and  to  seek  refuge  on  an  English  yacht. 
The  Turks  were  furious  and  killed  more  than  5,000  Ar- 
menians. Again  the  powers  remonstrated  ;  but  at  this 
time  it  began  to  dawn  upon  die  public  that  the  Armenians 
were  a  least  quite  as  much  to  blame  as  the  Turks,  and 
the  interest  subsided.  Russia  had  discovered  that  the  Ar- 
menians are  undesirable  citizens,  and  sent  back  some  40,- 
000  of  them  who  had  settled  in  the  Russian  Caucasus. 
Germanv,  intent  upon  securing  concessions  from  Turkey, 
left  the  sultan  a  free  hand ;  meanwhile  the  British  public 
was  engrossed  by  the  Boer  war,  and  the  Armenians,  see- 
ing that  they  were  left  to  their  own  devices,  subsided. 


1 


256 

The  civilized  world  was  startled  when,  on  August  24. 
1898,  Russia  issued  a  note  \n  the  powers,  declaring  that 
"  military  and  naval  hudj^^els  attack  puhlic  prosperity  at 
its  verv  source,  and  divert  national  enerj^ies  from  useful 
aims,"  and  suj^j^estin^-  a  conference  to  discuss  the  sub- 
ject of  displacing  war  by  an  International  Court. 

The  note  received  generous  applause,  especially  in  the 
United  States  and  (ireat  liritain,  the  two  foremost  na- 
tions devoted  to  the  arts  of  peace.  The  several  govern- 
ments agreed  to  participate  in  the  proposed  conference. 
The  place  selected  was  The  Hague,  the  capital  of  the 
Netherlands,  where  the  sessions  opened  on  May  18,  1899. 

Of  all  the  great  powers,  the  United  States  was  the  only 
one  unreservedly  in  favor  of  an  arrangement  whereby 
war  would  be  prevented.  Most  of  the  other  powers 
looked  upon  an  International  Court  as  visionary,  and  so 
far  as  the  ostensible  purj)ose  is  concerned,  the  conference 
was  a  failure.  Still,  it  bore  fruit  in  defining  and  adding 
strength  to  international  law.  Among  its  most  impor- 
tant results  is  the  clause  that  "  When  a  conflict  seems 
imminent,  one  or  several  powers  shall  have  the  right  to 
offer  mediation,  and  its  exercise  shall  not  be  regarded 
as  an  unfriendly  act."  A  permanent  Court  of  Arbitra- 
tion was  established  at  The  Hague.  It  is  composed  of 
judges  selected  from  a  list  on  which  every  country  is  rep- 
resented. On  the  29th  of  July,  the  delegates  of  sixteen 
nations  signed  the  protocol  embodying  the  conclusions; 
it  was  afterwards  signed  by  sixteen  more.  It  remained, 
however,  with  the  United  States,  to  give  vitality  to  an 
institution  which  was  looked  upon  with  ill  favor  by  many 
governments. 


257 

Although  the  reign  of  terror  from  the  nihilists  has 
passed,  political  murder  is  still  rampant  in  Russia,  and 
recent  events  in  the  Far  East  have  caused  a  renewal  of 
the  agitation  for  reforms.  Tn  1904,  the  Governor-gen- 
eral of  Finland  was  assassinated,  and  soon  afterwards, 
the  hated  and  dreaded  Minister  of  the  Interior  de  Plehve 
shared  that  fate.  His  successor  seems  to  be  anxious  to 
grant  greater  liberties  to  the  people.  The  united  action 
of  the  zemstvos,  and  the  final  issue  of  the  war  in  the 
Far  East,  may  have  important  results.  Nicholas  H, 
amid  all  his  perplexities,  was  made  glad  by  the  birth  of 
a  son  and  heir,  who  received  the  name  of  Alexis. 


XXVIII— THE  ORIGIX  AND  GROWTH  OF  THE 

ASIATIC  EMPIRE 

A  CLOSE  study  of  the  history  of  Asiatic  Russia  reveals 
the  fact  that,  until  within  a  comparatively  recent 
(late,  the  Russian  jT^overnment  had  no  fixed  policy  in  or  to- 
ward Asia.  There  was  a  national  instinct  which  impelled 
Russia  eastward.  Twice  had  Europe  been  invaded  by 
Asiatic  hordes,  and.  owing  to  its  position,  Russia  was 
doomed  to  bear  the  brunt  of  the  onset.  Russia's  history 
I)oint§  out  a  ceaseless  desire  to  be  a  European  nation,  to 
share  with  Europe  its  proi^ress  and  its  burdens.  It  is 
within  a  few  years  that  the  heir  to  the  throne  first  visited 
the  extensive  Asiatic  dominions.  No  czar  had  ever  put 
foot  in  them.  I'ntil  the  rei.c^n  of  Nicholas  I  ( 1825-1855), 
the  Russian  Empire  spread  eastward  much  as  the  United 
States  expanded  westward,  by  individtial  efTort. 

The  movement  began  in  1558,  when  Ivan  the  Terrible 
granted  to  Gregory  Strogonof  ninety-two  miles  of  waste 
land  on  the  banks  of  the  Kama.  The  new  owner  ex- 
I)lored  the  mineral  resources  of  the  Urals,  crossed 
the  mountains,  and  found  himself  in  the  kingdom  of 
Sibir.  Strogonof  had  become  acquainted  with  one 
Yermak  or  Irmak.  a  Cossack  and  captain  of  a  robber 
band  known  as  the  Good  Companions  of  the  Don.     He 

259 


26o 


had  been  condemned  to  death,  if  the  p^overnment  could 
lay  hands  on  him,  which,  on  account  of  the  sparsity  of 
the  population,  was  exceedingly  doubtful.  Stroj^onof 
discussed  with  him  a  raid  into  Sibir,  and  the  Cossack 
consented,  provided  his  pardon  could  be  secured.  Strog- 
onof  went  to  Moscow  and  submitted  his  scheme  to  Ivan 
who  gave  his  approval.  Upon  his  return  to  the  IVals. 
Strogonof  found  that  he  had  850  men,  Russians,  Cossacks, 
Tartars,  and  Cierman  and  Polish  prisoners  of  war,  all 
hardy  adventurers.  They  marched  east  terrifying  the 
natives  with  their  firelocks,  and  levying  tribute,  that  is, 
taking  whatever  was  worth  the  trouble.  They  defeated 
the  khan,  and  took  his  cai)ital.  Sibir,  on  the  Irtish. 
Yermak  then  visited  Moscow,  where  he  was  the  hero 
of  the  day.  Had  he  not  struck  at  the  very  heart  of  the 
mysterious  continent  whence  so  nuich  trouble  and  dis- 
grace had  come  upon  Russia?  And  had  he  not  exacted 
tribute  from  the  very  people  who  not  very  long  ago  held 
Russia  under  tribute. 

Yermak  was  therefore  praised  and  entertained  and 
graciously  told  to  go  ahead.  Ivan  had  neither  men  nor 
money  to  spare,  but  he  was  (juite  willing  that  these 
adventurers  should  despoil  the  Asiatics,  instead  of  holding 
up  Russian  travelers  and  traders.  Ivan  gave  him  a  suit 
of  armor  as  a  token  of  good  will.  After  Yermak's  return 
to  Siberia,  he  was  surprised  by  the  natives  and  drowned 
by  the  weight  of  his  armor  as  he  was  trying  to  escape 
by  swimming  the  Irtish.  (1584.)  Other  Cossacks  had 
heard  of  his  success  and  followed  his  example.  In  1587, 
Tobolsk  was  founded  on  the  Irtish,  ten  miles  below 
Sibir. 


261 


There  was  little  or  no  communication  between 
Siberia  and  Moscow,  owing  to  the  distance  separating 
them,  and  the  successors  of  Ivan  had  ample  trouble  on 
their  hands.  It  was,  therefore,  left  to  the  Cossacks  to 
make  such  explorations  and  contiuests  as  they  could. 
In  1619,  Tomsk  was  founded.  Farther  and  farther  did 
the  Cossacks  advance  among  the  isolated  tribes.  In 
1632,  a  log  fort  was  built  where  Yakoutsk  now  stands, 
and  six  years  later  they  gazed  upon  the  broad  waters  of 
the  Pacific  and  planted  the  czar's  flag  on  the  shore  of 
the  Sea  of  Okhotsk. 

It  was  a  congenial  occupation  for  the  Cossack,  to  roam 
where  he  pleased  and  to  take  what  suited  his  fancy,  and 
he  did  not  lack  either  the  skill  or  the  courage  needed  by 
the  explorer.  In  1639,  a  party  of  Cossacks  under  Max 
Perfirief,  discovered  the  Upper  Amoor,  and  heard  tales 
of  such  vast  wealth  that  they  hastened  to  Yakoutsk  and 
placed  their  discovery  before  Peter  Petrovitch,  the  first 
Russian  Governor. 

Men  and  money  wqtq  scarce,  but  the  governor,  after 
many  efiforts  managed  to  collect  132  men  whom  he  placed 
in  command  of  X'assili  Poyarkof,  with  instructions  to  do 
the  best  he  could.  The  party  started  on  the  15th  of 
July,  1643,  and  followed  the  usual  course  with  the 
natives  with  the  result  that  he  returned  to  Yakoutsk  in 
June  1646,  having  lost  most  of  his  men  in  attacks  by 
nifuriated  and  outraged  natives,  but  in  possession  of  a 
fund  of  information,  and  some  skins  as  tribute. 

During  the  reign  of  Alexis  Michaelovitch  ( 1645-1676), 
explorations     of     the     Amoor     regions     were     pursued 
vigorously.     A    young   officer    of    considerable   Avealth, 
Sto.  of  Russia — 17 


262 


named  Khabarof,  offered  to  conduct  an  expedition  at 
his  own  expense.  This  was  gladly  accepted,  and  he  left 
Vakoutsk  in  1649.  ^^^'  reached  the  Amoor  and  formed  a 
line  of  forts,  and  met  a  small  party  amoni;  whom  was 
the  khan,  who  aske<l  what  his  object  was.  Khabarof 
replied  that  he  had  come  to  trade,  but  that  the  czar 
would  probably  take  the  khan  under  his  powerful  pro- 
tection in  return  for  a  small  annual  tribute.  The  khan 
did  not  answer,  and  Khal)arof  after  burning  most  of  the 
forts  and  leaving  some  of  his  men  in  another,  returned 
to  Yakoutsk  to  report. 

In  June,  1651,  he  was  on  the  way  back  to  the  Amoor, 
where  he  came  in  conflict  with  the  Manchus.     He,  how- 
ever, forced  his  w^ay,  and  gained   for  the   Russians  the 
reputation  that  they  were  '*  devils,  who  would  make  grid- 
irons of  the  parents  to  roast  the  children  on."     At  this 
time  a  report  that  the  Amoor  region  contained  untold 
wealth  reached  Moscow,  where  it  produced  an  effect  very 
similar  to  that  felt  in  Spain  after  the  return  of  Columbus. 
Alexis  intended  to  send  an  expedition  of  3,000  men  to 
occupy  and  hold  this  treasure  grove,  but  he  was  prudent 
enough  to  dispatch  an  officer  to  order  Khabarof  to  Mos- 
cow, so  that  he  might  learn  the  facts.    This  officer,  Simo- 
vief  left  Moscow  in  March,  1652,  and  met  Khabarof  in 
August  of  the  following  year.     Leaving  the  command 
to  his  lieutenant   Stepanof,   Khabarof  obeyed  the  czar's 
call.      He   arrived   at    Moscow   and   after   the   czar   had 
heard  his  report,  the  expedition  was  given  up,  but  Alexis 
wrote  to  Stepanof.  upon  whom  he  conferred  some  honors, 
and  told  him  to  continue  the  good  work. 

The  interest  manifested  by  the  czar  inaugurated  an 


263 


exploration  fever  among  the  Russian  authorities. 
Pashkof,  the  Governor  of  Yeniseisk  started  on  the  i8th 
of  July,  1656,  for  the  Amoor  at  the  head  of  400  Cos- 
sacks: in  1658,  he  built  a  fort  w^iich  was  the  beginning 
of  Nerchin.sk.  It  w^as  1662  before  he  returned  to 
Yeniseisk. 

Unfortunately  the  Russians  came  into  a  clash  with 
the  Manchus,  at  that  time  in  full  vigor;  they  had  made 
themselves  masters  of  China,  and  their  emperor,  Kang-hi, 
was  an  exccptionably  able  and  strong  man.  He  did  not 
want  war.  but  on  the  other  hand  he  did  not  intend  to 
suffer  an  injustice. 

When  the  government  at  Moscow  became  aw^are  that 
further  encroachment  would  entail  a  war  with  China 
an  ambassador,  Feodor  Golovin,  was  dispatched  to  come 
to  an  under.standing.  He  left  Moscow  on  January  20, 
1686,  but  took  his  time.  Kang-hi  had  been  notified,  and 
ambassadors  were  sent  from  Peking  to  meet  Golovin. 
The  Russian  met  the  Chinese  at  Xerchinsk  on  the  22d 
August,  iC^j,  and  on  the  27th  the  terms  of  a  treaty  were 
agreed  upon.  Tw'o  days  later  the  treaty  was  exchanged. 
Russia  was  compelled  to  withdraw  from  the  Amoor. 
After  this  no  changes  in  the  boundary  line  occurred  until 
after  the  year  1847. 

In  1707,  Kamtschatka  was  annexed  to  Russia,  and  two 
vears  later  the  first  prisoners  were  sent  to  Siberia.  They 
were  ])risoners  of  war  and  natives  of  conquered  European 
provinces  who  objected  to  Muscovite  rule.  About  14,000 
persons  were  .sent  the  fir.st  year,  but  many  died  from  the 
hardshi])s  suffered  on  the  road. 

Besides  Siberia,  Russia  in  Asia  consists  of: 


264 

T.  The  Caucasus.  It  was  Peter  the  Great  who,  in 
1722,  invaded  Dagestan  and  seized  the  greater  part  of 
this  territory.  We  have  seen  how  the  mountaineers 
defended  their  Hberty  under  Schaniyl.^  and  it  was  left 
to  his  son  Alexander  to  annex  it  and  make  it  part  of  the 
Russian  Empire.  Including  Trans  Caucasia,  it  covers 
an  area  of  180,843  scjuare  miles, — or  about  that  of 
Colorado    and    Utah,    and    contains    a    population    of 

8,350,000. 

II.  The  Kirghiz  Steppe.  This  is  a  country  of  plains, 
unfit  for  agriculture  and  still  inhabited  by  nomads 
who  live  in  tents  and  wander  with  their  Hocks  over 
the  755,793  square  miles  of  territory.  They  are  divided 
into  three  hordes  or  families,  one  of  which  surren- 
dered to  Anne  Ivanovna  in  1734.  In  1869  the  Kirghiz, 
together  with  the  Cossacks  of  the  Don.  revolted,  but  in 
the  autumn  of  1870,  order  was  restored.  I' or  admin- 
istrative purposes,  it  is  divided  into: 

III.  Transcaspia,  which,  as  the  name  indicates,  in- 
cludes the  region  east  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  It  contains 
an  area  of  383618  square  miles  with  a  population  esti- 
mated at  352,000.  Like  the  Kirghiz  Steppe,  it  is  unfit  for 
agriculture,  although  it  contains  several  oases.  It  was 
formed  into  a  province  by  Alexander  III,  in  1881. 

ly.  Turkestan  contains  4aj,4i4  square  miles  with  a 
population  of  3,341,000.  The  valleys  of  the  Oxus  and 
Jaxartes  are  very  fertile,  but  the  rest  of  the  extensive 
province  is  almost  a  desert.  The  Oxus  or  Amu  Daria 
once  formed  the  boundary  of  the  empires  of  Cyrus  and 
Alexander.     It   was   conquered   step  by   stej),   and   after 

'  See  p.  209 


265 


manv    struggles    with    the    Turkomans    and  Kirghiz    to 
whom  it  originally  belonged. 

V.     The  Khanates,  so  called  because  they  once,  formed 
the  territorv  of  the  Khans  of  Khiva  and  liokhara.     This 
province  embraces  114,320  square  miles  with  a  population 
of  3,200,000.     Both  are  recent  acquisitions.     It  was  the 
war  with  Khiva,  in  1872,  which  first  drew  the  attention  of 
Europe  to  Russia's  expansion  in  Central  Asia.     There 
had  been  some  doubts  as  to  the  wisdom  of  permitting 
Russia  to  add  more  territory  to  her  already  enormous 
domain,  but  they  had  been  allayed  by  a  circular  note  to 
the  powers,  issued  by   Prince  Gortchakof,  the   Minister 
of  Foreign  Aflfairs,  on  November  21,  1864.    He  declared 
that  Russia  had  been  brought  into  contact  with  a  number 
of  half-savage  tribes  who  proved  a  constant  menace  to 
the  security  of  the  Empire,  and  that  the  only  means  of 
maintaining  order  on   the   frontier,   was  to  bring  them 
under  submission.     This,  he  said,  had  been  done  by  the 
United  States,  and  was  nothing  but  a  measure  necessary 
for  self-defense. 

This  reasoning  was  self-evident,  but  in  1873  the 
press  of  (ireat  P>ritain  asked  when  and  where 
this  necessity  would  cease.  Count  Schouvalof  was  sent 
to  London  and  in  several  interviews  with  Lord  Granville, 
he  stated  distinctly  and  plainly  that  Russia  had  no  inten- 
tion to  annex  any  more  territory  in  Central  Asia.  He 
declared  *  solemnly  with  regard  to  Khiva  that  *'  not  only 
was  it  far  from  the  intention  of  the  emperor  to  take  pos- 
session of  Khiva,  but  positive  orders  had  been  prepared 

1  Parliamentary  Papers,  Central  Asia.  1873. 


266 


to  prevent  it.  and  directions  given  that  the  conditions  im- 
posed should  be  such  as  would  not  in  any  way  lead  to 
the  prolonjT^ed  occupation  of  Khiva." 

Notwithstanding^  this  positive  declaration.  Khiva  was 
annexed  on  the  loth  of  June.  1873.  I'Our  months  after- 
wards, on  the  10th  of  ( )ctober.  a  treaty  was  sij^ned  by 
the  Khan  of  Bokhara.  givin<^  to  Russia  free  navigation 
on  the  Oxus,  and  other  privileges.  It  has  never  been 
formally  annexed,  but  is  to  all  intents  and  purposes  Rus- 
sian territory. 


XXIX-RUSSIAX  METHODS.     THE  WAR  WITH 

JAPAN 

AT  the  time  when  the  United  States  and  the  commercial 
powers  of  Europe  were  discussing  the  opening  of 
Japan.    Russia   resolved,    if   possible,   to   forestall    them. 
In   1847.  the  czar  appointed  a  young  general,  Nicholas 
Muravieff.  as  governor  of  Eastern  Siberia.    Shortly  after 
entering  upon  his  oflfice  he  sent  an  officer  named  X'agarof, 
who  had  explored  the  Amoor  River,  back  to  it  with  four 
Cossacks  to  make  an  extensive  report.     The  party  left 
Strelka  in  the  spring  of   1848,  but  was  never  heard  of 
again.     Suspecting  that  they  had  been  captured  by  the 
Chinese,  a  demand  was  made  for  their  surrender  on  the 
plea  that  they   were  deserters,  but  the  Chinese   replied 
that  they  knew  nothing  of  them.     Meanwhile  Muravieff 
had  ordered  the  exploration  of  the  shore  of  the  Sea  of 
Okhotsk  and  the  mouth  of  the  Amoor.     These  orders 
were  promptly  executed,  and  in  1850  Lieutenant  Orloff 
entered   the    river    from   the    sea.     The    following   year 
Captain  Xevilskoi,  who  had  come  out  in  the  Baikal,  sent 
a  boat  up  the  river  and  laid  the  foundations  of  Nikola- 
yefsk  and  Mariinsk,  therel)y  securing  a  foothold  on  the 
Lower    Amoor,    knowing    all    the    time    that    this    was 
Chinese  territory,   and   that   Russia   was   at   peace   with 

267 


i 


c 

O 
(/) 


s 


269 

China.  The  survey  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  was  not 
neglected.  Port  Imperial  on  the  coast  of  Manchuria 
was  discovered  and  occupied,  and  Urup,  one  of  the 
Kurile  Islands,  was  seized.  When  Commodore  Perry 
arrived  off  the  coast  of  Japan,  he  was  watched  by 
Admiral  Poutiatine  in  command  of  the  Pallas,  Vostok, 
Olivutzn  and  Mcnzikoff.  Aniwa  liay  was  seized  the 
same  year,  and  Russians  landed  on  the  west  coast  of 
what  is  known  as  Sai^halien,  but  was  known  and  owned 
by  the  Japanese  under  the  name  of  Karafuto. 

The  Crimean  War  gave  Muravieff  a  pretext  to  violate 
further    the   treaty    with    China.     He    claimed    that    the 
settlements  on  the  Pacific,  as  well  as  the  Russian  ships, 
were  in  need  of  sui)plies,  and  that  the  ocean  route  was 
closed  by  the  allied  fleets.     Was  it  Muravieff's  duty  to 
furnish  those  supplies?     In  that  case,  any  reference  to 
the  ocean  route  was  preposterous,  because  it  is  absurd  to 
suppose  that  supplies  would  be  sent  from  Eastern  Siberia 
to  the  north    Pacific  coast  by   such  a  route;  and  if  he 
had  furnished  them  before  by  the  overland  route  through 
Siberia,    why,    that    road    was   open    to   him.     What   he 
needed  was  a  pretext  to  secure  the  occupation  of  Japan, 
or  at  least  of  some  of  its  islands,  before  the  other  powers 
could  know  of  it ;  and  for  that  purpose,  it  was  necessary 
to  be  in  possession  of  the  lower  Amoor.     Perry's  ener- 
getic action  thwarted  him  ;  but  he  could  not  know  that. 
What  he  did  know  was  that  China  was  not  in  a  condition 
to  oppose  him.  and  that  the  other  powers  need  not  know 
what  he  was  doing. 

He  determined  to  send  an  expedition  strong  enough  to 
insure  respect,  and  lost  no  time  in  preparing  it.     Fifty 


C 

o 
10 

0) 
OS 


s 


China , 


Tl 


U'    survcv    n 


269 

f   iIk'    Soa   of   Okhotsk    was   not 

isi   of    .Manchuria 
f   th( 


nL'i;lcclc(l.       Port    lm|)(.'rial    on    the    co; 

was    (Hso)vcrc(l    and    occupied    and    Vvu\\    one    of    the 


Kurile    Ishmds.    was    sei/.ec 


1.      When   Commodore    Perry 


an 


-ived    off    the    coa>t    oi     |ai)an,    Ik 


w 


;is    watched    hv 


\<hniral    1  outiainie   ni   comman< 


Olii'iitzii    ai 


id    Mcn.zikoft.      Aniwa    l»a\ 


1  of  the   Palhis,   J'ostok, 
r,av    was    seized   the 


same   vea 


r.   and    Russians  landed   on    the   west   coast  ot 


what  is  kn(»wn  as  Sa-haHen,  hut  was  known  and  own 
bv  the  Japanese  un 


led 


ler  the  name  of  Karafuto 


The  Crimean 


War  irave  Muravieff  a  i)retext  to  violate 


further 
settlements  <  .11 


llu-   1 


turm 


^h   ll 


the    treatv    with    China,      lie    claimed    that    the 

as  well  as  the  Russian  ships. 

and  that  the  ocean   route  was 

,.      Was  it    Muravieffs  duty  to 

In   that   case,  anv   reference  to 


,u-ili( 
1; 


were   in   need  ot    Mii)])lies, 
closed   h\    the  allied   ileet: 


lose 


.up] 


)!l' 


the  ocean  route  was  i)repo^ 
suppose  that  sui)plies  would  1 


ll 


lerou.s,  hccause  it  is  al)sur< 

Sil) 


ll  to 


)e  so 


nt  from  h'astern  Siheria 


to   tl 


1*.    II'' 


nil 


aciti 


C    CO 


[ist   1)\    ^n«"h   a   roll 


te;   and   if   he 


liad  furnished  them  hel'ore  l)y  the  ovei 


rland 


r<  ai 


te  tl 


iroim'h 


Siheria.    whv,    that    road    was    open    to    him.      What    he 

»rete\t  to  secure  the  occupation  of   |ai)an. 


nee( 


led 


W.i: 


;i    1 


or  at  least  ot  s<  >nie  o 


f  its  islands,  het'ore  the  other  j^.wers 


con 


Id  know  of  it:  and  h»r  that  i)urpose,  it  was  nece 


ssarv 


f  the  lower  Amoor.      Perry's  eiier- 
l  him:  hut  he  could  not  know  that. 
What  hr  did  know  was  that  China  was  not  in  a  condition 
to  o])po.se  him.  and  that  the  other  powers  need  not  know 


lu   i»e   111   jio.ssessu  111   <» 
j^etic  action  thwartec 


w 


II 


hat  1 


U'  was  ( 


loin: 


11,    .l.i.rniinrd  to  send  an  expedition  stron.i;- enou.^ 
i.sure   re.speci,  aiMi   i< -m   ii-'  lime  in  preparinj 


it. 


h  to 

I'iftv 


270 

barges,  a  steamer,  and  niinieroiis  rafts,  a  thousand  Cos- 
sacks with  cannon,  the  whole  commanded  by  Muravieff 
himself,  left  Shilinsk  on  the  24th  of  May,  1854.  Follow- 
ing the  usual  custom,  the  expedition  was  accompanied 
by  scientific  men  to  survey  the  river,  prepare  maps, 
explore  the  country,  and  examine  its  resources.  At  ten 
A.  M.,  June  8,  they  arrived  at  Aigun  where  Muravieff 
was  received  by  the  Chinese  authorities,  who  displayed 
about  the  same  number  of  armed  men.  but  such  men  and 
such  arms!  Firelocks  dating  from  the  time  of  Kang-hi — 
1689, — convinced  Muravieff  that  fifty  Cossacks  could 
put  these  braves  to  rout.  Not  caring  to  arouse  Chinese 
hostility  for  fear  that  his  schemes  might  attract  attention, 
Muravieff  did  not  resent  it  when  the  Chinese  forbade  him 
to  enter  the  town  :  he  continued  on  his  journey,  and  on 
the  27th  of  June  arrived  at  Mariinsk.  After  sending 
part  of  his  force  to  Xikolayefsk,  he  went  on  to  Port 
Imperial  where  he  met  Admiral  Poutiatine.  They  dis- 
cussed the  situation,  and  Poutiatine  left  for  Japan  on 
the  Diana. 

Muravieff  hurried  back  as  he  had  come,  and  prepared 
another  expedition  which  he  took  down  the  river  in 
1855.  In  that  year  he  sent  three  thousand  Cossacks,  and 
five  hundred  colonists  down  the  Amoor,  together  with 
horses,  cattle,  provisions,  and  military  stores.  This 
activity  could  not  escape  the  Chinese  who  dispatched  four 
officials  to  Xikolayefsk  to  protest  against  the  invasion 
of  their  territory.  They  arrived  in  July,  and  were 
entertained  by  Muravieff  with  a  review  of  his  forces; 
after  this  hint  he  simply  dismissed  them.  At  this  time 
the  settlements  which  stood  in  such  urgent  need  of  sup- 


271 

plies,  were  Mariinsk,  which  consisted  of  two  log  cabins, 
Xikolayefsk  numbered  ten,  and  Castries  iiay  had  **  four 
badly  built  huls."' 

In  a  remarkably  short  time  we  hear  of  the  indefatigable 
Muravieff'  at  St.  IVtersburg  urging  the  annexation  of  the 
Amoor.  He  was  opposed  by  the  czar's  ministers,  but 
succeeded  in  convincing  the  emperor  that  China  could 
offer  no  resistance,  and  that  the  powers  need  not  hear 
of  it  until  it  was  too  late.  Thus  he  secured  large 
supplies  of  men  and  money.  In  the  beginning  of  1857, 
he  was  back  at  his  post,  and  on  the  ist  of  June  he  dis- 
patched Colonel  Ushakof  with  six  hundred  men  from 
Shilkinsk,  and  soon  after  followed  him  with  a  brigade  of 
Cossack  infantry  and  a  regiment  of  cavalry,  to  garrison 
the  forts  which  he  constructed  at  strategic  points. 

Seizing  the  opportunity  of  China's  distress  caused  by 
the  war  with  Fngland  and  France,  Muravieff  demanded 
the  cession  of  the  Amoor  X'alley.  The  Chinese  were 
helpless.  On  the  28th  of  May,  1858,  a  treaty  was  signed 
at  Aigun.  giving  to  Russia  the  left  bank  of  the  Amoor 
down  to  the  Cssuri,  and  both  banks  below  that  confluent, 
besides  the  right  to  navigate  die  Sungari  and  Ussuri 
rivers.  Russia  gave  absolutely  nothing  in  return.  Mean- 
while Count  Poutiatine  had  been  sent  from  St.  Petersburg 
to  watch  the  allies  and  to  profit  by  any  blunder  which  they 
or  the  Chinese  might  make.  Poutiatine  stopped  in  Japan, 
claiming  that  the  Koreans  had  given  him  the  privilege 
of  establishing  a  coaling  station  at  Port  Hamilton,  but 
knowing  that  Cireat  Britain  would  certainly  investigate 
his   claim,  he  did  not  i>ress   it.     He  tried  to   seize  the 


Ravenstein,  Russian.s  on  the  Amoor. 


272 

Japanese  Island  Tsushima  in  the  southern  entrance  to 
the  Jai)an  Sea,  and  midway  hetween  Japan  and  Korea: 
but  a  poHte  and  firm  invitation  from  the  IVitish  admiral 
to  leave  that  island,  and  the  admiral's  insistence  to  remain 
until  after  he  had  left  it,  spoiled  that  little  i^ame.  Poutia- 
tine  then  proceeded  to  China  where  he  proposed  to  help 
put  down  the  Tai  P'in<:^  rebellion  in  return  for  the 
cession  of  Manchuria  to  Russia.  This  handsome  offer 
was  politely  declined.  Once  a^^ain  Muravieff  hurried  to 
St.  Petersburg;  upon  his  advice  the  newly  acquired 
territory  was  officially  annexed,  and,  by  ukase  of 
October  31,  joined  to  the  littoral  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk 
and  Kamtschatka  under  the  name  of  Maritime  Province 
of  Eastern  Siberia,  with  Xikolayevsk  as  capital.  Mura- 
vieff remained  in  supreme  command. 

The  tireless  empire  builder  was  a.q'ain  on  the  Pacific 
Coast  in  1858.  On  May  21,  he  founded  r>lai^ovestchensk 
and,  after  descending  the  river,  laid  the  foundation  of 
Khabarofka,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ussuri.  In  October  he 
was  back  at  Kiakhta,  arranging  for  the  postal  service 
between  St.  Petersburg  and  the  extreme  east.  On  the 
2nth  of  August,  he  was  created  Count  Amoorsky,  or 
Count  of  the  Amoor,  a  promotion  which  he  had  well 
earned.  On  the  31st  of  December,  a  remarkable  ukase 
was  published,  beginning  "  Now  that  Russia  has  rrgained 
possession  of  this  valuable  region,  etc."  Ihe  entire 
territory  of  Eastern  Siberia  contained  740,922  square 
miles,  a  territory  equal  to  that  of  all  the  Atlantic  Coast 
States,  together  with  Indiana,  ( )hio,  West  X'irginia, 
Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Alabama,  and  Mississippi.  This 
did  not  include  the  Amoor  Province,  which  was  placed 


I 


273 

under  the  administration  of  a  governor  and  eighteen 
officials,  who  received  a  combined  annual  salary  of  $18,- 
873.60,  of  which  the  governor  received  $4680. 

Muravieff   was   back   at   his   post   in    1859.     Both  he 
and  Poutiatine  tried  to  induce  the  Japanese  to  give  up 
Karafuto    (Saghalien),    but    without    success.      At   this 
time   there   was   again   trouble   between   China   and   the 
allied  British  and  French,  and  when  in  i860,  a  P>ritish- 
French  force  marched  on  Peking,  Russia  had  sent  another 
empire  builder.  General  Ignatieff,  to  watch  if  he  could 
not  secure  something.     He  did  :  when  the  allies  entered 
Peking,  Ignatieff  sought  Prince  Kung  and  told  him  that 
the  ''  foreign  devils  "  would  surely  seize  the  country  un- 
less some  strong  power  com|)elled  them  to  leave.    Russia 
was  willing  to  do  this,  because  she  had  always  been  fond 
of   China;   and   all   she   asked   was   a   strip   of   outlying 
territory   of   no   value   to   China.     Prince    Kung  gladly 
signed   away   the   whole   east   coast  of   Manchuria,   six 
hundred  miles  long;  and  Ignatieff  redeemed  his  promise 
by  visiting  Lord  Elgin  and  Baron  Cros,  the  British  and 
French     plenipotentiaries.     After     paying     them     some 
flattering   compliments,    he    made   the    remark  that   the 
Peiho  river  would  freeze  in  a  few  days,  and  if  they  did 
not  get  out  at  once,  they  would  have  to  stay  all  winter  in 
Peking.     The  two  gentlemen  finished  their  business   in 
a  hurry,  packed  up,  and  left,  but  not  without  thanking 
Itrnatieff   for  his  kindness  and  reporting  the  matter  to 
their  government,  which  did  not  hear  of  the  Russian  s 
diplomacy  until  a  year  later.     This  is  how   Russia  ex- 
tended her  empire  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

For  many  years  the  efforts  to  secure  the  whole  island 


274 

of  Karafuto  continued  and  Japan  saw  that  war  must 
follow  unless  a  sacrifice  was  made.  In  1875,  Japan 
surrendered  the  island,  in  return  f(.r  the  Kurile  Rroup, 
but  the  Japanese  treasured  in  their  hearts  the  loss  and 
disgrace*  It  was  this  which  caused  the  assault  ui)on  the 
present  czar,  when  he  was  traveling  in  Japan. 

In  1894  the  war  between  Japan  and  China  broke  out, 
and  when  China,  humbled,  sued   for  peace,  Japan  de- 
manded the  cession  of  the  Liaotung  Peninsula,-where 
Port   Arthur   is   located,— besides   making  other   condi- 
tions.    When  this  became  known,  Russia,  after  securing 
the    help    of    Germany    and    France,    gave    Japan    the 
-  friendlv  advice,"  which  was  really  a  threat,  not  to  take 
that  penuisula.    Japan,  single-handed,  could  not  fight  the 
three  powers,  and  gave  way ;  but  every  Japanese,  high 
or  low,  young  or  old,  was  determined  to  pay  off  Russia. 
They  bought  or  built   war  vessels  everywhere  and  in- 
creased their  armv.     Russia  did  not  like  this,  and  pro- 
posed   that   Japan    should    take    all    the    islands    in    the 
Pacific,  the  Philippines,  Hawaii,  Borneo,  etc.,  and  leave 
the  continent  of  Asia  to  Russia.     Japan  declined,  and 
went  on  building   ships.     In   the  end   of    1898,    Russia 
announced   that   she   had   "  leased "   the   very   Liaotung 
Peninsula  which  she  had  prevented  Japan  from  taking. 
Japan    understood,    as   the    whole    world    did,    that    this 
''  lease  "  meant  possession.     The  Japanese  statesmen  did 
not   protest,    because    there    was    but    one    protest    that 
Russia    would    heed,— an    appeal    to    arms.     That    was 
Japan's  method   when,  in   1899,   Alexander   Pavloff,  the 
Russian  minister  in  Korea,  secured  from  that  government 
a  concession  in  the  port  of  Masampo,  opening  into  the 


275 


entrance  to  the  Japan  Sea.  Japan's  demand  was:  Let 
Masamix)  go,  or  it  means  war,  and  Russia  evacuated 
Masampo,  while  Pavloff  was  t(4(l  that  he  might  take  a 
furlough.  Then  came  1900,  the  Boxer  troubles  and  the 
international  march  upon  Peking.  Japanese  officers  took 
note  of  the  Russian  troops,  leaving  the  Russians  to  do 
the  same  with  their  soldiers.  Japan  never  ceased  her  prep- 
arations. In  the  latter  part  of  190T,  Marquis  Ito  Hiro- 
bumi  visited  the  United  States  and  crossed  over  to  Eng- 
land, where  he  proposed  an  offensive-defensive  alliance. 
P»ritish  statesmen  hesitated,  when  Ito  told  them  in  plain 
terms  that  if  no  such  treaty  was  concluded,  he  was 
authorized  to  go  on  to  Russia,  and  make  the  best  terms 
he  could  for  his  country. 

Meanwhile  Pavloff  had  returned  to  Seoul,  the  capital 
of  Korea,  and  by  means  best  known  to  Russian  diplomats, 
was  trying  to  gain  a  foothold  on  the  I'eninsula.     Under 
the  pretext  of  a  timber   concession,   the   Russians  con- 
structed a  fort  on  the  Korean  side  of  the  Yalu  river, — 
where  it  was  afterwards  discovered  by  newspaper  cor- 
respondents.    Russia  had  secured  control  of  Manchuria 
with  its  362,310  square  miles  and  11,250,000  population, 
and  none  of  the  powers  dared  protest.    Japan  was  ready. 
Could  she  allow  the  *'  peaceful  "   absorption  of   Korea, 
as  that  of  Manchuria  had  been  accomplished?     Safe  in 
the  offensive-defensive  alliance  with  Great  Britain,  Japan 
approached  Russia  in  a  dignified  manner,  to  be  put  off 
with  vague  replies.     After  six  months  of  patience,  Japan 
broke  off  diplomatic  intercourse,  and,  as  this  is  considered 
equal  to  a  declaration  of  war,  she  struck  and  hit  hard. 


tuO 

3 

to 

0) 


(A 


XXX— RUSSIA  LOSES  HER  PRESTIGE 

WHEN,  in  February,  1894,  the  world  was  startled 
by  the  Jai)anese  j^^iins  in  the  harbor  of  Chemulpo 
(Korea),  one  of  Russia's  well-known  diplomats,  speaking 
in  defense  of  his  country,  said :  "  Ours  has  been  a  peace- 
ful absorption."  Another  statesman,  pleading  for  sym- 
pathy, remarked  pathetically  :  *'  \\\^  were  unprepared  for 
war."  The  two  advocates  of  Russia's  cause  spoke  the 
truth,  but  they  did  not  proclaim  the  whole  truth. 

Ever  since  MuraviefF  Amoorsky  began  the  peaceful 
absorption  of  Manchuria  by  seizing  the  coastline  of  that 
province,  Russia  has  extended  her  dominions  using  no 
other  weapon  than  her  prestige,  that  is,  the  dread  in- 
spired by  her  name,  power,  and  resources.  Repeated 
protests  from  Great  Britain  remained  unheeded,  because 
the  czar's  government  was  convinced  that  they  would  not 
be  emphasized  by  a  resort  to  arms.  The  semi-civilized 
tribes  of  Central  Asia  were  unable,  of  course,  to  oppose 
the  Russian  advance;  and  China  was  justly  afraid  of 
defying  the  great  northern  power.  Thus  the  peaceful 
absorption  continued  with  such  ease  that  the  Russian 
tchinovnik  ended  in  believing  in  their  country's  prestige. 
Herein  lies  the  principal  cause  of  the  astounding  history 
of  the  war  with  Japan. 

Sto.  of  Russia — 18  277 


*VL  vl^^WMi'l 


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,#» 


#** 


a; 


Hm      ari^i 


ftHV   *>mm 


rf  ■ 


Z^      I 


(/I 


00 


XXX— RUSSIA   LOSES  HER   PRESTIGE 

^^niEX,  in  Eebriiary,  i8()4.  the  world  was  startled 
»  ^  l)v  the  Japanese  i^uns  in  the  harbor  of  Chemulpo 
(  Korea),  one  of  Russia's  well-known  di])loinats,  speaking 
in  defense  of  his  country,  said  :  **  ( )urs  has  been  a  peace- 
ful absorption."  Another  statesman,  ])lea<linjL^  for  sym- 
j)athy,  remarked  patheticall\  :  "  W'c  were  unprepared  for 
war."  The  two  advocates  of  Russia's  cause  spoke  the 
truth,  but  they  did  not  proclaim  the  whole  truth. 

Ever  since  Muravietf  Amoorsky  be.^an  the  peaceful 
absorption  of  Manchuria  by  seizint^  the  coastline  of  that 
province,  Russia  has  extended  her  dominions  using"  no 
other  weapou  than  her  prestijL^e,  that  is,  the  dread  in- 
spired by  her  name,  power,  and  resources.  Repeated 
protests  from  ( ireat  liritain  remained  unheeded,  because 
the  czar's  irovernment  was  convinced  that  thev  would  not 
be  emphasized  bv  a  resort  to  arms.  The  semi-civilized 
tribes  of  Central  .\sia  were  unable,  of  course,  to  oppose 
the  Russian  advance;  and  China  was  justly  afraid  of 
defying-  the  ^reat  northern  power.  Thus  the  peaceful 
a])sorption  continui'd  with  such  ease  that  the  Russian 
tchinovnik  ended  in  believini^  in  their  country's  prestige. 
TTcrcin  b'cs  the  principal  cause  of  the  astounding  history 
of  the  war  with  Ja])an. 

Sto.  HI Krssi  \ — iS  277 


278 

Although  Russia  repeatedly  agreed  to  evacuate  Man- 
churia, her  actions  in  the  construction  of  railways  and 
other  roads,  the  opening  of  mines,  the  enormous  capital 
expended  in  creatini^  a  commercial  emporium  in  Dalny, 
and  her  jealousy  in  excludinj^  foreij^ners  from  that  ter- 
ritory,— all  this  was  ample  evidence  that  nothing  short  of 
compulsion  would  cause  her  to  withdraw.  Resides, 
Alexander  Pavloff,  the  Russian  Minister  in  Korea,  was 
anxious  to  emulate  Count  Cassini,  his  former  chief  at 
Peking.  He  was  constantly  plotting  to  secure  a  foot- 
hold in  the  Peninsula.  Tn  1903.  it  was  announced  that  a 
Russian  company  had  obtained  a  timber  concession  on  the 
Yalu  River.  A  few  months  afterwards,  some  American 
newspaper  correspondents  with  the  Japanese  army  dis- 
covered the  ruins  of  a  Russian  fort  on  that  river, 
securely  screened  from  indiscreet  eyes,  but  in  a  fine  posi- 
tion to  control  the  passage.  That  was  the  timber  con- 
cession. 

Russia's  policy,  therefore,  was  a  serious  menace  to 
Japan.  P)Ut  Japan  did  not  purpose  to  draw  ridicule  by 
unavailing  protests.  Feverishly  the  preparations  for  more 
emphatic  action  were  continued ;  in  the  latter  part  of 
1903,  Japan  was  ready.  Safe  from  a  possible  European 
intervention  by  her  treaty  with  Great  Britain,  Japan  re- 
minded Russia  of  her  promise  to  evacuate  Manchuria  on 
October  7,  and  requested  an  explanation  f(^r  not  keep- 
ing the  pledge.  Russia,  with  a  blind  faith  in  her  prestige, 
replied  that  the  affair  did  not  concern  Japan  but  China, 
whereupon  Japan  made  a  proposition  concerning  Man- 
churia and  Korea  which  would  be  acceptable.  With 
studied  contempt  replies  from  the  czar  were  held  back 


279 


beyond  the  time  permitted  by  international  courtesy. 
Moreover  their  tenor  was  not  only  unsatisfactory,  but 
was  also  calculated  to  exasperate  the  i)rou(l  Japanese. 
When  the  final  preparations  were  made,  Japan  instructed 
her  minister  to  St.  IVtersburg,  to  demand  his  passports, — 
an  act  ecjuivalent  to  a  declaration  of  war. 

The  tchinovnik  doubted  their  senses.  Russia  main- 
tained that  a  severance  of  (lij)lomatic  relations  did  not 
necessarily  imply  an  apj)eal  to  the  sword,  when  the  news 
flashed  over  the  wires  that  the  Russian  war  vessels 
\'aryag  and  Koreyetz  had  been  blown  up  at  Chemulpo 
to  escape  being  ca])tured.  The  world  was  still  marveling 
at  Japan's  audacity  when  it  was  informed  that  three  other 
Russian  war  vessels  had  been  disabled  owing  to  a  night 
torpedo  attack  under  Admiral  Togo. 

Why  was  the  Russian  fleet,  numerically  superior  to 
that  of  Japan,  divided?  The  answer  is  found  in  that 
fatal  word :  prestige.  Pavloff  in  Korea  had  requested 
the  presence  of  the  two  doomed  ships,  to  keep  the  Japan- 
ese in  awe.  Admiral  Stark  lay  under  the  guns  of  im- 
pregnable Port  Arthur,  trusting  to  the  prestige,  when  the 
illusion  vanished.  There  was  still  the  Vladivostok  squa- 
dron ;  it  made  an  effort  to  induce  Togo  to  leave  Port 
Arthur  by  making  a  raid  upon  the  north  coast  of  Japan, 
but  in  vain.  Beyond  sinking  a  few^  unarmed  merchant- 
men, nothing  of  importance  was  accomplished. 

The  czar's  choice  to  restore  Russia's  naval  prestige, 
fell  upon  Admiral  Makaroff.  At  about  the  same  time, 
General  Kuropatkin.  the  former  Minister  of  War,  was 
charged  with  punishing  Japan  for  her  insolence.  His 
departure  for  the  Far  East  was  theatrical.     After  many 


2  So 

genuflexions  before  sacred  eikons,  he  promised  to  re- 
store Russia's  prestige  by   dictating  terms  of  peace   in 

Tokyo. 

Makarofif  was  less  enthusiastic,  and  perhaps  more  in 
earnest.  It  is  asserted  that  he  restored  disciphne  in  a 
sadly  demoralized  fleet.  He  was  enticed  out  of  Port 
Arthur's  shelter  by  a  small  tieet  of  the  enemy's  cruisers 
sent  out  as  a  decoy.  When  he  discovered  Togo's  iron- 
clads he  returned  to  port,  but  his  flagship  struck  a  mine 
at  the  entrance  to  Port  Arthur  and  sunk.  The  Admiral, 
as  well  as  his  guest,  the  noted  battle  painter  X'erestchagin, 

perished. 

With  Togo  blockading  Port  Arthur  and  Admiral 
Kaminura  guarding  \'ladivostok,  the  Jai)anese  secured 
the  freedom  of  the  sea,  and  began  to  pour  troops  into 
Korea.  This  was  greeted  with  acclamation  by  the 
tchinovnik  who,  after  their  naval  misfortunes,  claimed 
that  the  situation  would  soon  be  reversed  by  the  army. 
Some  Japanese  soldiers  were  landed  openly  at  Chemulpo, 
but  the  bulk  went  ashore  in  a  well-concealed  harbor 
south  of  the  Yalu  River,  (ieneral  Kuroki  was  in  com- 
mand. 

Meanwhile  Kuropatkin  was  in  Manchuria  busy  organiz- 
ing the  army  when  not  obstructed  by  Viceroy  Alexieff. 
Such  troops  as  he  found  were  capable  of  rendering  good 
service  in  hunting  down  Chinese  brigands,  but,  as  the 
sequel  proved,  the  army  had  also  been  nurtured  upon 
that  most  indigestible  material,  prestige.  To  the  wonder 
of  Europe,— and  to  a  less  degree  of  America,—  Kuroki 
crossed  the  Yalu  and  sent  the  czar's  dreaded  soldiers 
flying  before  him.    (May  i,  1904.) 


281 


Once  more,  and  for  the  last  time,  did  the  Russian 
fleet  at  Port  Arthur  attempt  a  sortie.  It  failed,  and  its 
fate  was  sealed. 

\\  bile  the  wreckage  of  Russia's  once  proud  fleet  lay 
concealed  in  Port  Arthur's  inner  basin,  the  Japanese, 
after  scouring  the  waters  to  clear  them  from  mines, 
landed  troops  on  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula,  claimed  by 
Japan  after  the  war  with  China,  but  despoiled  of  it  by 
Russia's  peaceful  absorption.  In  1894,  Port  Arthur  was 
taken  in  a  day  from  the  Chinese :  the  Russians  defended 
the  impregnable  fortress  for  six  months.  *'Our  prestige 
demands  that  the  enemy  shall  not  capture  Port  Arthur," 
cried  the  tchinovnik,  and  Kuropatkin  was  ordered  to 
General  Stoessel's  rescue.  The  attempt  failed,  and  Gen- 
eral Xogi  could  pursue  the  siege  without  being  dis- 
turbed.    (June   14-15,   1904.) 

A  stolid,  ignorant,  and  densely  superstitious  people 
was  at  war  with  a  rejuvenated  nation  keenly  alive  to  the 
power  of  education.  That  is  the  secret.  Man  for  man, 
Russia  would  have  won.  lUit  the  resourcefulness  of  the 
little  brown  man  more  than  offset  the  Russian's  physical 
superiority.  As  the  year  1905  dawned,  the  fall  of  Port 
Arthur  was  made  known  to  the  world. 

Slowlv,  but  heralded  by  the  marvels  it  would  accom- 
plish, the  P>altic  fleet  under  Rojestvensky  sailed  to  Mad- 
agascar, welcome  to  whatever  aid  the  Trench  ally  could 
bestow.  Jai)an  said  nothing,  but  made  a  note  of  it.  She 
cleaned  and  scrai)ed  her  sea-worn,  battle-scarred  vessels, 
under  the  supervision  of  grim,  silent  Togo.  Oyama,  the 
Jai)anese  commander-in-chief,  reenforced  by  the  veterans 
of  Kuroki  and  Xogi,  was  playing  with  Kuropatkin  until 


282 

he  had  the  game  in  his  hand.  After  ten  days  of  hard 
fighting,  the  discomfited  Russians  made  a  masterly  retreat 
to  the  Sha  river,  after  evacuating  Mukden,  the  cradle  of 
the  present  Chinese  dynasty,   (August  26-September  4, 

1904.) 

Kuropatkin  deserved  credit  for  the  manner  in  which 
he  extricated  the  remains  of  the  czar's  army.  Oyama 
did  not  feel  safe  in  following  up  the  pursuit.  His  game 
was  that  of  a  skillful  chessplayer.  First  make  sure  of  the 
result  with  mathematical  precision,  then  strike.  The 
Japanese  were  deaf  to  the  demand  for  brilliant  dashes. 

After  the  battle  of  Liao-yang,  the  armies  seemed  idle 
so  far  as  news  from  the  front  went.  Oyama  attacked  his 
former  antagonist  on  the  Shakhe  River  and  drove  the  dis- 
comfited Russians  beyond  Tie  pass.  General  Kuropatkin 
was  superseded  by  his  former  subordinate  Linievitch 
who,  however,  accomplished  nothing  to  warrant  his  pro- 
motion. 

Meanwhile  the  Baltic  fleet  left  the  hospitable  shores  of 
IVIadagascar,  proclaiming  its  search  for  Togo,  together 
with  the  determination  to  punish  the  impertinent  Japan- 
ese. In  the  latter  part  of  May,  1905,  Admiral  Rojest- 
vensky  made  a  dash  for  X'ladivostok  through  the  Tsu 
channel,  the  southern  entrance  to  the  Sea  of  Japan.  Togo 
intercepted  him,  and  a  battle  followed  which,  in  its  re- 
sults, stands  unifiue  in  the  history  of  naval  warfare. 
At  a  cost  of  three  torpedo  boats,  113  killed,  and  444 
wounded,  the  Japanese  sank  6  Russian  battleships,  i 
coast  defense  vessel,  3  special  service  boats,  and  3  de- 
stroyers, besides  capturing  2  battleships,  2  coast  defense 
vessels,  and  i  destroyer.    The  losses  in  killed  were  8,550 


283 


and  over  3,000  prisoners,  among  them  Admirals  Rojest- 
vensky  and  NebogatofT,  were  taken  to  Japan.  As  a 
result  of  this  one-sided  battle,  Russia's  naval  power  is 
broken.     (May  27-28,    1905.) 

While  President  Theodore  Roosevelt  seized  this  op- 
portunity to  approach  the  belligerents  in  favor  of  peace, 
pointing  out  the  hopelessness  of  continuing  the  struggle 
to  Russia  and  appealing  to  Japan's  magnanimity,  the 
world  was  startled  by  the  revolt  of  the  Kniaz  Potemkin, 
a  first-class  battleship  of  the  Black  Sea  squadron.  The 
mutineers  found  no  support,  and  what  might  have  proved 
a  serious  danger  to  the  house  of  Romanoff,  ended  by 
the  ship  being  sunk  in  Roumanian  waters.  She  was 
recovered  by  the  Russians. 

President  Roosevelt's  efforts  toward  bringing  the  two 
powers  together,  proved  successful.  Washington  was 
agreed  upon  as  the  place  for  the  negotiations,  but  the 
plenipotentiaries,  Sergius  W^tte  and  Raron  de  Rosen 
acting  for  Russia,  met  l>aron  Komura  and  Minister  Taka- 
hira,  who  represented  Japan,  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H., 
where  the  United  States  acted  as  host. 

The  incompatibility  of  Japan's  demands  and  Russia's 
concessions  on  several  occasions  brought  the  plenipoten- 
tiaries on  the  verge  of  rupture.  With  the  singleminded- 
ness  born  of  an  unselfish  purpose.  President  Roosevelt 
exerted  all  the  personal  influence  he  could  bring  to  bear 
upon  czar  and  emperor  with  the  result  that  the  victor 
gave  the  world  an  astounding  lesson  in  magnanimity. 
Japan  made  peace  possible  by  withdrawing  her  demands 
for  indemnity  and  the  cession  of  territory  beyond  that  of 
whicli  Russia  had  robbed  her, — the  southern  half  of  the 


284 

island  of  Sakhalin,  which  will  be  once  more   Karafuto 
for  the  Japanese. 

The  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Peace  were  agreed  upon  at 
Portsmouth  on  the  29th  of  August  1905.     The  war  had 
lasted  from  the  5th  of  l-ebruary,  1904,  or  572  days.    Rus- 
sia paid  in  men  375^000'  in  money  $i,o75,ooo,ooo,--all 
for  peaceful  absorption  and  support  of  prestige.    Cassim's 
shrewd  move,  ten  years  before,  in  robbing:  Japan  of  the 
Liao-tuni:    Peninsula   and    Port    Arthur,    has    ended    in 
Japan's  obtaining  possession  of  that  key  to  Peking,  with 
the  promise  of  holdincr  it  beyond  the  possibility  of  re- 
capture, until  China  recovers  its  manhood.     The  Treaty 
of  Peace  was  signed  September  5,  at  Portsmouth,  X.  H. 
What  will  be  the  efifect  of  the  war  upon  the  Russian 
people?     While  die  plenipotentiaries  were  discussing  the 
terms  of  peace,  autocracy  launched  a  ukase  calling  for  a 
consultative   assembly.      Russian   thinkers,   however,   re- 
flect  that,   so   long   as   autocracy   exists   and   the   tchin- 
ovnik   admit   no   other   authority   but   that   of   the   czar, 
another  ukase  may  revc^ke  the  doubtful  boon. 

No  one  knows  what  the  morrow  will  bring,  either  to 
us  or  to  the  Slav.  Yet  it  seems  absurd  to  suppose  that, 
after  the  lessons  of  corruption  and  incompetence  of  the 
present  government,  the  educated  Russians  will  remain 
quiescent  while  the  great  empire  continues  on  its  down- 
ward course.  Medicxvalism  has  come  into  contact  with 
the  spirit  of  die  twentieth  century,  and  has  been  found 
wanting.  It  seems  as  if  the  dawn  of  a  new  era  for 
Russia  is  at  hand. 


INDliX. 


Abdul  Aziz,  231 

Abdul  Hiunid,  232 

Alexander  I,  the  Well-beloved.  197 

Alexander  11,  the  Liberator,  218 

Alexander      III.      the       Peasants' 

Friend,  241 
Alexander  of  Hattenber^.  246 
Alexander  Nevski.  (jo,  (^ 
Alexis  Michaelovitch.  141 
Alexis,  son  of  Peter  the  Great,  170 
Andrew  Hojjoliouski,  54 
Ainie  Ivanovna,  Czarina,  175 
.Area  of  Russia,  14 
Armenians,  255 
Askold,  30 

B 

Haskak,  Tartar  tax  collector,  71 
Bati.  Khan  of  the  Golden  Horde.  65 
Battle  of  the  Oka,  102 
Boundaries  of  Russia,  15 
Boyard,  noble,  56 

Byzantium,  former  name  of  Con- 
stantinople. 

C 

Catherine    I,    wife    of    Peter    the 

Great,  iCk),  171,  173 
Catherine  II,  the  Great,  1S3 
Caucasus,  The  264 
Choulski,  Andrew,  112 
Choulski,  Czar,  134 
Christianity,  36,  42 
Climate  of  Russia,  18 
Constantine,  58 


Council  of  Florence,  attempt  to 
unite  the  Roman  and  Greek 
Churches,  60 

Crimea  The,  annexed,  190 

Crimean  War,  215 

Cyril,  36 

Czar,  king,  112 

Czargrad,  city  of  the  king 

Czarina,  wife  of  the  czar 

D 

Dagh  Bog  the  sun  g(jd,  26 

Diak,  secretary,  107 

Dir,  30 

Dmitri  Donskol,  87 

Dnieper,  20 

Donskol,  of  the  Don,  surname  of 

Dmitri,  91 
Douma,  council  of  nobles,  131 
Drujina,  bodyguard,  32 
Dinia,  20 

Dvor,  inclosure,  27 
Dwina,  20 


Eikon,  image  of  a  saint,  44,  55 
F.lizabeth,  Queen  of  England,  118 
Elizabeth,  Czarina,  178 


F'eodor   (Theodore),   Son   of  Ivan 

the  Terrible,  \2() 
Feodor  Alexievitch,  144 
Finland,  2^) 
Finns,  2C) 
Frederick  the  Great,  188 


285 


286 


G 


Galitch,  Southwest  Russia,  6i 

(jt'dimin,  80 

(ienghis  Khan.  64 

(jct)rge  Dolj^orouki,  51 

George,  Grand  Duke  of  Moscow.  83 

Godounof,  Boris,  Czar,  I3) 

Gosti,  guest,  Russian  for  mercliant, 
124 

Goubernii,  Government  or  pro- 
vince, 226 

Greece,  independence  of,  209 

Greek  Church,  42 

Gustavus  Wasa,  119 

H 

Hetman,  chief  of  Cossacks. 

I 

larhkh,  patent  or  written  author- 
isation from  the  khan,  73 
laropolk,  41 
laroslaf  II,  44 
Igor,  son  of  Rurik,  30,  32 
louri,  George, 
Isiaslaf,  50 
Ivan  Kalita,  85 
Ivan  II,  88 

Ivan  III,  the  Great,  97 
Ivan  IV,  the  Terrible,  in 
Ivan  Alexievitch,  145 
Ivan  Ivanovitch,  177 


Jagellon,  80 

Jews,  persecution  of  the,  242 

K 

KaHta,  ahnsbag,  87 

Kazan,  119 

Khanates,  the,  2O5 

Kholop,  slave,  123 

Kief,  41 

Kirghiz  Steppe.  2^x4 

Kniaz,  duke,  defender,  prince,  30, 

45 


Kosciusko,  Thaddeus,  191 

Kostroma,  19 

Kublai  Khan,  68 

Krestianine,  true  Christian,  sur- 
name given  to  the  peasants 
during  the  Tartar  yoke. 


Leo  the  Deacon,  historian,  37,  39 
M 

Mangou,    grandson     of    Genghis 

Khan,  67 
Mazeppa,  147,  158 
Methodius,  36 
Metropolitan,  Head  of  the  Greek 

Church,  56 
Michael,  Grand  Duke  of  Tver,  75 
Michael,   first  czar  of  the  present 

dynasty,  135 
Mindvog,  79 
Minine,  Kouzma,  a  Russian  patriot, 

134 
Mir,  communal  village,  2^ 

Moscow,  Burning  of,  202 
Moujik,     lit.    Manikin,     contemp- 
tuous word  for  peasant,  34 
Mstislaf  the  Bold,  58 
Mstislaf  the  Brave,  55 
Murad  V,  231 
Muravieff  Amoorsky,  267 

N 

Namiestnik.  ducal  delegate,  106 

Napoleon  I,  197 

Napoleon  III,  213,229 

Nicholas  I,  207 

Nicholas  II,  251 

Nicon,  Reformer,  144 

Nihilism,  234 

Nestor,  Russian  historian,  29,  32 

Novgorod,  Republic  of,  29,  97 

O 

Oktai,  khan,  69 
Olga.  42 


287 


Olgerd.  80 

Oleg,  30,  41 

Olmutz,  Battle  of,  198 

Oulogenia,  Code   of    Laws  under 

Ivan  III.,  105 


Pan-Germanism,  246 
Pan-Slavism,  245 

Paul  I,  U)4 

Peace  Congress,  256 

Peipus,  Lake,  Battle  on  the  Ice,  70 

Perun.  god  of  thunder,  27 

Peter  the  Great,  145 

Peter  II,  174 

Peter  III.  1 79 

Philarete,  Metropolitan,  father  of 

the  first  Romanof,  135 
Plemia,  confederacy  of  tribes,  28 

Poland,  Partition  of,  188 

Poliessa,  forest  region,  20 

Poniatofski,  Stanislas,  187 

Portsmouth,  Peace  treaty  at,  284 

Possadnik,  burgomaster  or    com- 
mandant, 52 

Prestige.  Russia  loses  her,  277 

Pskof.  Republic  of,  51 

Pultowa,  Battle  of.  81 


Raskol,  plur.  Raskolnik,  Religious 
Madmen,  opponents  to  N icon's 
reforms,  146 

Roman.  Duke  of  Volhynia,  61 

Romanof,  Anastasia,  wife  of  Ivan 
the  Terrible,  114 

Romanof,    Michael,    elected  czar, 

135 
Rurik,  2() 
Russkaia   Pravda,    Russian   Right, 

45 
Ryndis,  young  nobles,  1 10 

S 

St.  Petersburg  founded,  168 


Sarai,  Capital  of  the  Golden  Horde, 

68 
Schamyl,  209 
Scythians.  23 
Simeon,  first  Grand   Duke  of   All 

the  Russias,  88 
Sineous,  29 

Slavophil.  Friend  of  Slavs,  230 

Slavs,  25 

Smerd,  boor,  lout. 

Sophia,    Autocrat  of  All  the    Rus- 
sias, 145 

Starost,  elder  or  mayor,  52 

Streltsi,  national  guard.  121 

Stri  Bog.  god  of  the  winds,  27 

Sviatopolk,  44,  49 

Sviatoslaf,  35,  41 


Tamerlane,  92 
Tartars  or  Tatars,  63 
Tartartchina.  Tartar  Yoke,  73 
Tcherne.     Black  people,  name  ap- 
plied   to   the    people    by   the 
nobles,  77 
Tchel()bitit5,   Beating  of   the  fore- 
head, i.  e.,  petition,  123 
Tchin,  plur.  Tchinovnik,  lit.   Gen- 

tlemen,  now  Officials,  164 
Tilsit,  meeting  at,  199 
Transcaspia,  --64 
Treaty  of  Berlin,  234 
Treaty  of  Paris,  220 
Truvor,  29 
Turkestan,  264 
Turks,  94,  231 
Turkey,  war  with,  232 
Tysatski,  commandant  of  the  mi- 
litia, 52 


U 

Ukase,  imperial  edict  equal  to  law 
Ural  Mountains,  18 
Uzbeck,  Khan,  68 


288 


Valdai  Plateau,  19 

Varanjiians,  Norsemen.  29 

Vassili  the  Blind,  1)3 

Vetch6,  Municipal  Council,  27 

Vitovt,  81 

Vladimir  Monomachus,  40 

Vladimir,  Saint,  41 

Voievod,  governor  of  a  fortress,  33 


Volga,  119 

Voloss,  god  of  the  flocks. 
Volost.  county  or  canton,  28 
Vsevolod,  57 


Zemisces.  John,  38 
Zemstvo,  Assembly,  226 


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